MATHUR CLASSES ,645 / 19 FBD.

(9810425165)
Class XI CHEMISTRY
Chapter – Structure of Atom

Structure of Atom

Nucleus (Proton and Neutron)

Extra nuclear part

Electron

A tom

Non destructible

Discharged tube

Green light Cathode Rays

+ ─

1 Atm = 760 mmHg = 1 MMHg = 0.0001 MMHg

10,000 ev 10.000 ev 10,000 ev

ratio = 1.76 x 108 (e = charge, m = mass)

Millikan ← charge on e─ = 1.6 x 10─19 C

1
 +

+ ─

Properties of Cathode Rays:

1. They are the negatively charged.

2. They travel in a straight line.

3. They can produce mechanical effect.

4. They can affect photographic plate.

5. Ratio for cathode rays remains constant for all gases because electrons are of
negligible mass.

Properties of Anode Rays: Canal rays

+ Anode rays / protons

+ ─

─ Perforated cathode.

1. They are positively charged.

2. They travel in a straight line.

3. They can produce mechanical effect.

4. They can affect photographic plate.

5. Ratio for anode rays does not remain constant for all gases because protons are of
considerable mass and number of protons is different in different gases.

Anode rays are also called as canal rays because they pass through perforated cathode.

James Chadwick

2
 Alpha + Be → C + → Neutron

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative

Mass Mass Charge Charge
Proton E. Goldstein 1.6 x 10─27 Kg 1u + 1.6 x 10─19 C + 1 unit
Electron J.J.Thomson 9.1 x 10─31 Kg u ─ 1.6 x 10─19C ─ 1 unit
─27
Neutron J.Chodwick 1.6 x 10 Kg 1u 0 0 unit

Thomson Atomic Model

According to it an atom is a sphere of positive charged protons whereas electrons are

embedded in between.

Limitations:

1. He was not able to explain overall neutrality of atom.

2. Not able to explain the results of Rutherford Alpha Scattering experiment.

Henry Becquerel

Radioactivity Gamma Rays(r)

─ electric field + electric field

+vely charged ─ve charge

Alpha rays Beta rays

∝( ) β( )

Radioactive element

3
Rutherford Alpha Scattering Experiment

Slit

Radioactive Element Zinc Sulphide Screen

Golden Foil

+
Nucleus

Observation and conclusion:

1. Most of the alpha particles go straight that means there is a lot of empty space
inside the atom.

2. Some of them are deflected by small or large angle. That means there is a positively
charge body inside the atom called nucleus.

3. Very few of them come back which means that the nucleus of very small size and is
hard.

4
Rutherford Atomic Model / Planetary Model

e─

Atom is spherical in nature having positive charged nucleus at the centre and electrons are
revolving around the nucleus to overcome the nuclear charge.

Size of nucleus is 10─15 m

Size of atom is 10─10 m

Atomic Number (Z): It is defined as the number of protons inside the nucleus of an
atom.

Z = Number of protons = number of electrons

Atomic Mass (A): It is defined as the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

A = number of protons + number of neutrons

A=Z+n

n=A─Z

5
 A → Atomic mass

Z → Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

1. Calculate the number of , n and in .

Protons = electrons = 35

Mass number = 80

n = 45

2. The number of , n and in a species is equal to 16, 16 and 18 respectively. Asign a proper
symbal to species.
p+ = 16 = Z [p+ = e─ (Neutral)]

n = 16 [p+ > e─ (Cation)]

e─ = 18 [p+ < e─ (Anion)]

─2

3. An element with mass number 81 contains 31.7%. More neutrons as compared to protons.
Assign atomic symbol.
Let the number of protons be x.

∴ Number of neutron = xn

= x + 0.317n

= 1.317n

81 = x + 1.317n

= 2.317n

∴x= = 34.9 = 35 (approx.)

6
4. An ion with mass number 37 possesses one unit of negative charge. If the ion contains 11.1%
more neutrons than the electrons, find the symbol of the ion?
Let number of electrons be x

∴ Number of n =x+ xn

= x + 0.111x

= 1.111 x

=> 37 = x + 1.111 x + 1

=> x= = 17 (approx.)

∴ e─ = 17

∴ P+ = 18

∴ Ion = Cl─

5. An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of positive charge and 30.4% more neutrons than
electrons. Assign the symbol to this ion.
Let number of electrons be x

∴ Number of number =x+ xn

= x + 0.304 n

= 1.304 n

56 = 1.304 n + n + 3

=> 53 = 2.304 n

=> n= = 23

∴ P+ = 23 + 3 = 26

∴ Ion = Fe+3

6. A certain particle carries 2.5 x 10─16 c of static charge. Calculate the number of electrons present
in it

C = 2.5 x 10─16 C

1e─ = 1.6 x 10─19 C

1C=

2.5 x 10─16 C = = 1560.

7
7. If the diameter of one carbon atom is 0.15 nm. Calculate the number of carbon atoms which can
be placed side by side in a straight line across the length of scale of length 20 cm long.

d = 0.15 nm

= 0.15 x 10─9 x 102 cm

= 15 x 10─9 cm

No. of C atoms = = 1.3 x 109

8. i) calculate the number of electrons which together weigh one gram.

1 e─ = 9.1 x 10─31 kg = 9.1 x 10─28 g

9.1 x 10─28 g → 1 e─

1g→ = 1.1 x 1027

ii) Calculate the mass and charge of one mole of e─

1 mole = 6.023 x 1023 e─

1 e ─ 9.1 x 10─31 kg

1 mole = 6.023 x 9.1 x 1023 x 10─31

= 54 x 10─8 kg

1 e = 1.6 x 10─19 C

1 mole e─ = 1.6 x 10─19 x 6.023 x 1023

= 9.65 x 104

9. Find (a) total number (b) total mass of protons in 34 mg of NH3 at S.T.P.

NH3

W = 34 mg = 34 x 10─3 g

M = 17 g

Mole = = 2 x 10─3

∴ molecules = 2 x 10─3 x No.

8
P+ = 7 + (3 x 1)

=7+3

= 10 x 2 x 10─3 No

= 2 x 10─2 x No

Mass = (1.6 x 10─27 kg x 2 x 10─2 x No)

9
Electromagnetic Wave Theory: (By Maxwell)

1. The energy emitted by any source is continuous in the form of radiant energy.

2. The radiations consist of electric and magnetic field that are perpendicular to each
other.

3. They do not require any medium to propagate.

Crest Wave Length

Amplitude ‘a’ Trough Mean Position

Transverse Wave

Frequency

V = ν x λ → wave length Wave = 1 Crust + 1 Trough

Wave velocity time taken in the formation of 1 wave = Time Period T(s)

For electromagnetic radiation

Number of waves in 1 sec = Frequency ν /f Hz/sec.

ν ( frequency) = → 3 x 108 m/s

Wave number ν =

1. Wave length: It is the distance between two consecutive crest or trough.

2. Frequency: It is defined as the number of complete waves produced in 1 second.

3. Time period: It is the time taken to produce 1 complete wave.

4. Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of a wave from its mean position.

5. Wave Velocity: Linear distance covered by a wave in 1 second.

6. Wave number: The no. of complete wave produced in 1 cm length.

ν=

V=νxλ

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 ν=

Electromagnetic spectrum:

When the electromagnetic radiations are arranged according to their increasing wave
length, the complete spectrum is called as electromagnetic spectrum.

COSMIC γ RAYS X-RAYS UV RAYS VISIBLE IR RAYS MICRO RADIO

RAYS GAMMA RAYS WAVE WAVE

Black Body Radiation:

When a substance being heated is a black body, the radiations emitted are called black
body radiations.

Photoelectric Effect

Kinetic Energy of ejected e─ ½ mv2 = hv ─ hv0

KE = E ─ E0 9.1 x 10─31 kg

e─ e─ e─ e─ e─ e─

Metal Surface

(Minimum energy for the electrons to leave the metal surface) E0 = hv0 =

Work Function Threshold energy

If E < Eo No ejection Planks constant

E = Eo 6.67 x 1034 Js

E > Eo E = hν =

Frequency

No. of e─ 6.67 x 10─34

E=n

Energy

Photoelectric effect:

11
When the radiations with frequency greater than a certain minimum frequency (ν0) strike
the surface of a metal, the electrons are ejected from the surface of metals. This
phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.

12
Plank Quantum Theory:

1. The radiant energy is emitted or absorbed continuously in the form of small packets
of energy called photon.

2. The energy of 1 quantum is directly proportional to frequency of radiation.

E ∝ ν, E = h ν

3. The total amount of energy emitted or absorbed by a body will be some whole
number quantum

i.e.E=n hv No. of photons

*Note:

1. The velocity (Kinetic Energy) of ejected electron depends on the frequency of

incident radiation.

2. The number of photo electrons depends upon the intensity of incident radiation.
K. E. of Ejected
Electron

νo Frequency of
Absorbed radiation

Threshold
Frequency
K. E

Intensity

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 6.67 X 10─34 Js

E = h ν → Frequency =

Energy

Work Function ← Eo = h νo =

Thresholds frequency

KE = mv2 → velocity of ejected e─ = E ─ Eo = h ν ─ h νo

9.1 X 10─31 Kg =

KE of ejected e─

E = nh ν

Total number of photoelectrons

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 R
O
Y
G
B Spectrum
I
V

Emission Spectrum Absorption Spectrum

1. This spectrum is obtained when the This spectrum is obtained when the white
radiations from the source are directly light is first passed through the substance
analysed in the spectroscope. and the transmitted light is analysed in
the spectroscope.
2. It consists of bright coloured lines It consists of dark lines in the otherwise
separated by dark spaces. continuous spaces.
3. It may be continuous or discontinuous. It is always discontinuous.

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 7

E> 6

λ< 5

1st spectral line 4

Minimum E n1 = 1

Lymen Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund Humphury

Series Series Series Series Series Series

n1 = 1 n1 = 2 n1 = 3 n1 = 4 n1 = 5 n1 = 6

n2 = 2,3,4,5…. n2 = 3,4,5…. n2 = 4,5,6…. n2 = 5,6…. n2 = 6,7…. n2 = 7,8,9…….

1st spectral

Line / Emin / λ max n2 = 3 n2 = 4 n2 = 5 n2 = 6 n2 = 7

n2 = 2

Limiting line / Emax / λ min

n2 = ∝ => for all series

Rydberg’s formula

ν = = 109677 cm─1 ( ) Z2
(R)
Wave number Rydberg’s constant Atomic no.

Wave length Energy level

R = 109677 cm─1

= 1.09677 x 105 cm─1

= 1.1 x 107 m─1 S.I.

16
Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic model:

1. He could not explain the stability of an atom.

2. He was not able to explain about line spectrum of hydrogen and like particles.

3. He could not explain the distribution of electrons and energy of electrons.

Bohr Atomic Model:

1. An Atom is spherical in nature having positive nucleus at the centre whereas

electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain imaginary levels called shells.

2. Energy of electron in nth orbit 9.1 x 10─31 Kg

En = - 1.6 x 10─19 C.

6.7 X 10─34 Js

17
En = KJ/mol

En = J/atom

En = ev/Atom

Distance of an electron from the nucleus: 1 cm = 10─2 m

rn = 1 mm = 10─3 m

0.529 Å (Bohr radius) (micro) 1 um = 10─6 m

rn = Å 1 nm = 10─9 m

Velocity of an electron in nth orbit: 1 Å = 10─10 m

Vn = 1 pm = 10─12 m

Vn = m/s

3. At atom revolves in an orbit of energy called ground state. It may jump to the
higher energy state called excited state. However its stay is temporary and the e─
comes back to its original state by losing its energy.

4. The energy of an e─ moving in an orbit and its angular momentum is quantised i.e.
both increase abruptly and not continuously.

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 Mass of e─ Distance from the nucleus

Angular momentum of an orbit = m v r =

Velocity of e─ orbit

E= KJ / mole

Ionisation Energy = E∝ ─ E1

= 0 ─ E1

= ─ E1

E.g. I.E. of H = 13.6 ev

I.E. = E∝ ─ E1

=> 13.6 = 0 ─ E1

=> E1 = ─ 13.6 ev

Q. Why energy of an electron is taken as negative?

A. Suppose an electron in an atom is at infinite distance from a nucleus, it experiences

a negligible force of attraction. Hence the energy is considered as 0. When it comes
close to the nucleus under the nuclear charge some energy is released. Hence the
net value is negative.

Advantage of Bohr Atomic model:

1. He could explain the stability of an atom.

2. He was able to explain about line spectrum of hydrogen and like particles.

3. He could explain the distribution of electrons and energy of electrons.

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Limitation of Bohr atomic Model:

1. Not able to explain the spectrum of multi electronic atoms.

2. No able to explain the splitting of lines in electric fields (stark effect) and magnetic
field (Zeeman effect).

3. Not able to explain three dimensional model of an atom.

4. Not able to explain the shape of molecule.

De Broglie Relation

If photon is like a wave

E = hν ─ (1)

If photon is like a particle

E = mc2 ─ (2)

By (1) and (2)

hν = mc2

= mc2 = = mc

6.7 x 10─34 J/s

=λ Electromagnetic Radiation

Wave length

Mass of photon 3 x 108 m/s

To derive the relation for Kinetic energy

λ= ─ (1) By (1) ─ λ =

KE = mv2 λ2 =

2KE = mv2 λ2 =

2mKE = m2v2 => λ=

√

20
To derive the relation for electric potential

V= = Energy

KE / Energy = V x q

=Vxnxe

If 1 electron

∴ KE = V x 1.6 x 10─19

Electric Potential

We have,

λ=
√

( )
λ=
√

9.1 x 10─31 Kg

=> λ= m
√

21
Why De Broglie’s relation is not applicable to microscopic particles.

λ=

Suppose a ball weighs 0.1 kg

V = 120 m/s

λ=

= x 10─35

= 5.5 x 10─35

λ is too less to be measured.

Heisenberg uncertainty Principle:

It is impossible to measure simultaneously the position and momentum of small particles

with absolute accuracy. If an attempt is made to measure any of the two quantities with
higher accuracy, the other becomes inaccurate. However the product of ∆x and ∆p is equal
to or greater than

i.e. ∆P x ∆x ≈

∆P x ∆x =

m x ∆V x ∆x =

Q. Why electron can’t remain inside the nucleus?

Ans. Suppose we assume electron to be inside the nucleus

Uncertainty in position ∆x = 10─15 m

We have ─ m x ∆V x ∆x = 10─15 m

∆V =

∆V =

∆V = 5.7 x 1010 m/s

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 Hence uncertainty in the velocity is more than the velocity of light which is not
possible.

Particle Wave
1. A particle has well defined position in A wave is spread out in the space (i.e. a
space (i.e. the particle is localised) wave is delocalised)
2. When a number of particles are When a number of particles are present in
present in a particular stage their as their total value can be larger or
total value is equal to their sum. smaller than an individual wave.
Electromagnetic Wave Matter Wave
1. These are the waves which do not These are the waves that require a
require a medium to travel. medium to travel.
2. Their speed is very high. Their speed is slow.

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 Orbit Orbital
1. It is well defined circular path It is three dimensional space around the
around the nucleus in which an nucleus with in which the probability of
electron revolves. finding an electron is maximum.
2. They are circular or disc shaped. They have different shapes.
3. They are not directional. They are directional except S orbital.
4. Maximum number of electrons in an Maximum number electron in an orbital is
orbit is given by 2n2 (n = number of 2.
shells).
Quantum numbers:

It is a set of four numbers which give complete information of all the electrons in an atom.

1. Principal Quantum Number (n):

(a) It tells about the number of shells of an e─

Examlpe n =1 1st shell E.g. 4s 3d

=2 2nd shell Shell Shell

n=4 n=3

(b) It tells about the distance of an e─ from the nucleus

rn = Principal quantum no.

(c) It tells about the energy of electron in an orbit.

En = KJ / mol─ Principal quantum no.

(d) It tells about maximum no. of electrons in a shell

2n2

(e) Vn =

2. Azimuthal Quantum number (l)

1. It tells about the sub shells.

2. Tells about angular momentum of electron in a subshell.

3. Tells about energy of the sub shell.

4. Tells about shape of sub shell.

No. of subshell of a shell = the shell itself.

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Maximum

No. of e─ (2n2) Shell Sub-Shell Representation

2 1 (K) 1s (simple) 1s

8 2 (L) 2s, p (principle) 2s, 2p

18 3 (M) 3s, p, d (diffused) 3s, 3p, 3d

32 4 (N) 4s, p, d, f (fundamental) 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Value of l depends on n. For a particular value of n.

Values of l are 0 to (n─1)

E.g. 1st shell n=1 l = 0 to (n─1) = 0 to (1─1)

∴ l = 0 hence first shell will have one sub shell.

1s For s subshell, l = 0

2nd shell n=2 l = 0 to (2─1) = 0 to 1

Hence second shell will have two sub shells.

l = 0 → 2s

l = 1 → 2p

For p sub shell, l = 1

3rd shell n=3 l = 0 to (3─1) = 0 to 2

Hence third shell will have three sub shells.

l = 0 → 3s

L = 1 → 3p

L = 2 → 3d

For d sub shell, l = 2

4th shell n=4 l = 0 to (4─1) = 0 to 3

Hence fourth shell will have four sub shells.

L = 0 → 4s

L = 1 → 4p

25
 L = 2 → 4d

L = 3 → 4f

For f sub shell, l = 3

Find the value of n and s.

1. For 1st shell

n = 1, l = 0

2. For 1 s l≠n

n = 1, l = 0 l>n

3. For 2nd shell l<n

n = 2, l =0,1 E.g. 3 f → Not possible

4. For 2s

n = 2, l = 0

5. For 2p

n = 2, l = 1

3. Magnetic Quantum No.

It tells about the orientation of an e─ in a particular shell/sub shell.

S sub shell (spherical) 1 orbital

P sub shell (dumb bell)

y y

+ +

x ─ + x

─ ─

node

26
 Z

Py Px PZ

Nodal plane

d subshell 5 orientation (5 orbitals)

x y x

dxy dyz dxz

Clover leaf shape y

Dough nut shape

dx2 ─ y2 dz2

S → 1 orbital px

P → 3 orbital px py pz py

pz

d → 5 orbital

dxy dyz dxz dx2 -y2 dz2

Value of m depends on l.

For a value of l, values of m are ─ l to +l

For s l = 0, m = ─ 0 to + 0 for ex. 1s l=0

2s m=0

P l=1 m = -1 to +1

27
 px , py = ± 1 ∴ m = ─ 1 → px/py

pz = 0 m = 0 → Pz

m = + 1 → Px / Py

1st shell n=1

l=0 1s

m=0

2nd shell n=2

l=0 l=1

(2s)

n=2 m=0 m =─1 2px/2py

=1

0 2Pz

3rd shell n=3

3(s) 0 3(P) 1 (3d) 2

L=0 l=1 l=2m=─2→+2

M=0 m = ± 1, 0 m = ─ 2, ─ 1, 0, 1, 2

3px 3py 3pz

e.g. 4 d xy dxy ±2

n=4 dx2 ─ y2

l=2 dxz ±1

m=±2 dyz

S l=0 dz2 = 0

P l=1

d l=2

f l=3

28
4. Spin Quantum No.:

It tells about the spinning of electron around its axis.

S=+ ,─

S orbital

P orbital +

─ +

─ ─

±1 px ±1 Py 0 Pz

D orbital
y x z

+ ─ + ─ + ─

x y x

─ + ─ + ─ +

dxy dyz dxz

– +

+ +

dx2 ─ y2 ± 2 dz2

29
 Nodal plane

Node

No. of spherical / radial node = n ─ l ─ 1

No. of planar / angular nodes = l

Total nodes = n ─ 1

1s Angular = 0

Radial = 1 ─ 0 ─ 1 = 0

Total = 0

2s Angular = 0

Radial = 2 ─ 0 ─ 1 = 1

Total = n ─ 1

=2─1=1

4d Angular = 2

Radial = 1

Total = 3

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Angular momentum

Orbit Orbital

mvr = √ ( )

4th shell Angular momentum (orbit) =

3rd

Orbit Orbital

1s 2s

Orbital

P sub shell Degenerate orbital

pz py pz

Same energy

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nth shell E.g. 4th shell

4s 1

Sub shell = n 4 4p 3

4d 5

16 4f

Orbital = n2 7

Electron = 2n2 32

Sub shell l 4p sf

No. of orbitals (2l + 1) 3 7

Electron 2(2l + 1) 6 14

32