CIR 201: Research Methods

and Technical Writing

Lecturer: Dr. Oteyo Obare

Identifying Variables
What is a variable?

• An image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement – hence

capable of taking on different values – is called a variable. In other words, a
concept that can be measured is called a variable.
• A variable is a property that takes on different values.
• A variable is something that varies … A variable is a symbol to which
numerals or values are attached
• A variable is rational units of analysis that can assume any one of a number
of designated sets of values.
• A concept that can be measured on any one of the four types of
measurement scale, which have varying degrees of precision in
measurement, is called a variable.
Examples of variables?

• Gender (male/female)
• Age (x years, y months)
• Income ($ __ per year)
• Weight ( __ kg)
• Height ( __ cm)
• Religion (Catholic, protestant, Jew, Muslim) etc.
• Measurable though the degree of precision varies from scale to scale
and from variable to variable.
The difference between a concept and a variable
• Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a variable.
• Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meanings
vary significantly from individual to individual, whereas variables are
measurable, though, of course, with varying degrees of accuracy.
• A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to
measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement.
• Concepts are subjective impressions which, if measured as such would
cause problems in comparing responses obtained from different
respondents.
• It is therefore important for the concepts to be converted into variables
(either directly or through a set of indicators) as they can be subjected to
measurement, even though the degree of precision with which they can be
measured significantly varies from one measurement scale to another
(nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio).
Converting concepts into variables
• If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its
operationalisation – that is, how it will be measured. In most cases, to
operationalise a concept you first need to go through the process of
identifying indicators – a set of criteria reflective of the concept – which can
then be converted into variables.
• The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with the researcher but
those selected must have a logical link with the concept. Some concepts,
such as ‘rich’ (in terms of wealth), can easily be converted into indicators
and then variables.
• For example, to decide objectively if a person is ‘rich’, one first needs to
decide upon the indicators of wealth. Assume that we decide upon income
and assets as the indicators.
• Income is also a variable since it can be measured in dollars; therefore, you
do not need to convert this into a variable.
Converting concepts into variables Cont..
• Although the assets owned by an individual are indicators of his/her
‘richness’, they still belong to the category of concepts. You need to look
further at the indicators of assets. For example, house, boat, car and
investments are indicators of assets.
• Converting the value of each one into dollars will give the total value of the
assets owned by a person. Next, fix a level, based upon available
information on income distribution and an average level of assets owned by
members of a community, which acts as the basis for classification.
• Then analyse the information on income and the total value of the assets to
make a decision about whether the person should be classified as ‘rich’. The
operationalisation of other concepts, such as the ‘effectiveness’ or ‘impact’
of a programme, may prove more difficult.
Converting concepts into variables Cont..
• One of the main differences between quantitative and qualitative
research studies is in the area of variables.
• In qualitative research, as it usually involves studying perceptions,
beliefs, or feelings, you do not make any attempt to establish
uniformity in them across respondents and hence measurements and
variables do not carry much significance.
• On the other hand, in quantitative studies, as the emphasis is on
exploring commonalities in the study population, measurements and
variables play an important role.
Types of variable

• A variable can be classified in a number of ways:

• the causal relationship;
• the study design;
• the unit of measurement
From the viewpoint of causal relationship

• In studies that attempt to investigate a causal relationship or association,

four sets of variables may operate, namely:
• 1. Change variables, which are responsible for bringing about change in a
phenomenon, situation or circumstance;
• 2. Outcome variables, which are the effects, impacts or consequences of a
change variable;
• 3. variables which affect or influence the link between cause-and-effect
variables;
• 4. connecting or linking variables, which in certain situations are necessary
to complete the relationship between cause-and-effect variables.
From the viewpoint of causal relationship Cont..
• In research terminology, change variables are called independent variables,
outcome/effect variables are called dependent variables, the unmeasured variables
affecting the cause-and-effect relationship are called extraneous variables and the
variables that link a cause-and-effect relationship are called intervening variables. Hence:
• 1. Independent variable – the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about
change(s) in a phenomenon or situation.
• 2. Dependent variable – the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an
independent variable.
• 3. Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect
changes in the dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase
or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
• 4. Intervening variable – sometimes called the confounding variable, it links the
independent and dependent variables. In certain situations the relationship between an
independent and a dependent variable cannot be established without the intervention of
another variable. The cause, or independent, variable will have the assumed effect only in
the presence of an intervening variable.
From the viewpoint of the study design

• In controlled experiments the independent (cause) variable may be

introduced or manipulated either by the researcher or by someone else
who is providing the service. In these situations there are two sets of
variables:
• Active variables – those variables that can be manipulated, changed
or controlled.
• Attribute variables – those variables that cannot be manipulated,
changed or controlled, and that reflect the characteristics of the study
population, for example age, gender, education and income.
From the viewpoint of the study design Cont..

• Suppose a study is designed to measure the relative effectiveness of three teaching

models (Model A, Model B and Model C). The structure and contents of these
models could vary and any model might be tested on any population group.
• The contents, structure and testability of a model on a population group may also
vary from researcher to researcher.
• On the other hand, a researcher does not have any control over characteristics of
the student population such as their age, gender or motivation to study. These
characteristics of the study population are called attribute variables.
• However, a researcher does have the ability to control and/or change the teaching
models. S/he can decide what constitutes a teaching model and on which group of
the student population it should be tested (if randomization is not used).
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement

• From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement, there are two ways of
categorising variables:
• whether the unit of measurement is categorical (as in nominal and ordinal
scales) or continuous in nature (as in interval and ratio scales);
• whether it is qualitative (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or quantitative in
nature (as in interval and ratio scales).
• On the whole there is very little difference between categorical and
qualitative, and between continuous and quantitative, variables.
• Categorical variables are measured on nominal or ordinal measurement
scales, whereas for continuous variables the measurements are made on
either an interval or a ratio scale. There are three types of categorical
variables:
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Cont..

• Constant variable – has only one category or value, for example taxi,
tree and water;
• Dichotomous variable – has only two categories, as in male/female,
yes/no, good/bad, head/tail, up/down and rich/poor;
• Polytomous variable – can be divided into more than two categories,
for example religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); and attitudes
(strongly favourable, favourable, uncertain, unfavourable, strongly
unfavourable).
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Cont..
• Continuous variables, on the other hand, have continuity in their measurement, for
example age, income and attitude score. They can take any value on the scale on which
they are measured.
• Age can be measured in years, months and days. Similarly, income can be measured in
dollars and cents. In many ways qualitative variables are similar to categorical variables
as both use either nominal or ordinal measurement scales.
• However, there are some differences. For example, it is possible to develop categories on
the basis of measurements made on a continuous scale, such as measuring the income of a
population in dollars and cents and then developing categories such as ‘low’, ‘middle’ and
‘high’ income.
• The measurement of income in dollars and cents is classified as the measurement of a
continuous variable, whereas its subjective measurement in categories such as ‘low’,
‘middle’ and ‘high’ groups is a qualitative variable.
• Although this distinction exists, for most practical purposes there is no real difference
between categorical and qualitative variables or between continuous and quantitative
variables.