Quantum Field Theory (2019-20) Toby Wiseman

Problem sheet 1: Symmetries

Questions 2,3 and 4 are for the rapid feedback at 4pm 25th Oct ’19 and are marked RF.

Hand in solutions to the UG office before 11am on 22nd Oct (Tuesday).

Qu. 1
Using kilograms and natural units (~ = c = 1) calculate;

(i) The mass of 1kg of water

(ii) The volume of 1kg of water

(iii) The time it takes you to drink a cup of tea

Note: all answers should involve only kg units.

Now using electronvolts, eV , calculate the same quantities in natural units.

“Hang on, I won’t be a quadrillion inverse electron volts...”

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RF Qu. 2
Consider the infinitessimal version of the Lorentz transformation x0µ = ⇤µ ⌫ x⌫ ,

⇤µ ⌫ = µ
⌫ + ✏v µ ⌫ + O(✏2 )
(i) Show that vµ⌫ = ⌘µ↵ v ↵ ⌫ is antisymmetric. Writing this in terms of
generators (M ↵ )µ ⌫ which are antisymmetric, (M ↵ )µ ⌫ = (M ↵ )µ ⌫
so that,
⇣ i ↵
⌘µ i
⇤µ ⌫ = e 2 !↵ (M ) = ⌫µ !↵ (M ↵ )µ ⌫ + . . .
⌫ 2
show that we may take,
(M ↵ )µ⌫ = i ↵
µ ⌫
↵
⌫ µ . (1)
How are the parameters !µ⌫ related to the components of v µ ⌫ above?
(ii) Consider the following rotation and boost (written in matrix form –
A = Arowcol ),
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 cosh r sinh r 0 0
B 0 cos(✓) C
sin(✓) 0 C B 0 C
⇤rot = B B sinh r cosh r 0 C
@ 0 sin(✓) cos(✓) 0 A , ⇤boost = @ 0 0 1 0 A
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
with rapidity r so, = cosh r, v = sinh r. Confirm these are Lorentz
transformations – ie. they preserve the norm ⌘µ⌫ xµ x⌫ . Compute the
parameters !↵ for the infinitessimal versions.
(iii) Using the generator above, prove that the Lorentz algebra is;
[M↵ , M⇢ ] = i ⌘ ↵⇢ M ⌘ ⇢ M↵ ⌘↵ M ⇢
+ ⌘ M↵⇢
where this is written as a matrix expression to ’manage’ the indices.
Using the form of the Lorentz generators above in equation (1), show
how the rotation generators are a subset of the Lorentz generators,
embedded as Ji = 12 ✏ijk Mjk so that,
[Ji , Jj ] = i✏ijk Jk
ie. the usual rotation algebra. Check that the spatial components of
the generators are the familiar (Ji )j k = i jm ✏imk .

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RF Qu. 3
Consider a function f (x) on spacetime.

(i) Consider a translation xµ ! x̄µ = T xµ = xµ + aµ with generator Pµ so

that,

f¯(x̄) = f (x) = f (x̄ a) = f (x̄) iaµ Pµ f (x̄) + . . .

Relabeling x̄ ! x this give the ‘active’ picture of the transformation,

f (x a) = f (x) iaµ Pµ f (x) + . . . .

Show that the generator is Pµ = i@µ . Hence show that the translation
algebra is;

[Pµ , P⌫ ] = 0

(ii) Now consider the infinitessimal transformation of the function under a

Lorentz transformation, xµ ! x̄µ = ⇤µ ⌫ x⌫ with generator J ↵ ,
i
f¯(x̄) = f (x) = f (⇤ 1 x̄) = f (x̄) !↵ J ↵ f (x̄) + . . .
2
Again relabelling x̄ ! x to go to the active picture,
i
f ((⇤ 1 )µ ⌫ x⌫ ) = f (x) !↵ J ↵ f (x) + . . . .
2
Show the correct generator is J ↵ = x P ↵ x↵ P . Confirm that this
obeys the same Lorentz algebra that you found in Qu. 1. for M ↵ ,
and also show that,

[P µ , J ↵ ] = i ⌘ µ↵ P ⌘µ P ↵

(iii) In a quantum theory we have operators P̂ µ and Jˆ↵ that obey this
Poincare algebra. Explain why the commutator of P̂µ and Jˆ↵ (the
operator version of the equation above) implies that the infinitessimal
transformation of P̂ µ is that of a vector.

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RF Qu. 4
Consider a 3-dimensional quantum system with position space states, |xi i (so
k
that x̂i |xi i = xi |xi i) and momentum space states |pi i, and hxi |pj i = eix pk .
Translations x ! x + a are represented by a unitary operator Û (ai ) so that;
Û 1 (a)x̂i Û (a) = x̂i + ai .

(i) Show that states transform as,

Û (a)|xi i = |xi + ai i

(ii) By considering hxi |Û (a)|pj i show that,

ipk ak
Û (a)|pi i = e |pi i
ip̂k ak
Hence argue that Û (a) = e .

(iii) Use the commutator [x̂i , p̂j ] = i i

j to show that,
⇥ ⇤
x̂i , (p̂j aj )n = inai (p̂j aj )n 1

ip̂k ak 1
and hence confirm Û (a) = e does obey Û (a)x̂i Û (a) = x̂i + ai .

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Qu. 5
i
Consider the same system and rotations ~x ! ~x0 = R · ~x, with R = e in Ji
i
from earlier Qu 2, implemented by the unitary operator Û (R) = e in L̂i which
rotates about the axis given by the vector ni , so that, Û (R)|~xi = |R · ~xi;

(i) Following the same argument as in the last question show that,

U (R) 1 x̂i U (R) = Ri j x̂j

(ii) Show that the correct operator to generate these rotations is;

L̂i = ✏ijk x̂j p̂m mk

(iii) Show that this operator obeys the rotation algebra given in Qu 2.

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Qu. 6
Some revision on the bosonic operator algebra (ie. ladder operators, or
creation-annhilation operators).

Consider the (bosonic) creation and annhilation operators ↠and â which
obey the commutation relations;
[â, ↠] = â↠↠â = 1̂
and by the symmetry of the commutator [â, â] = [↠, ↠] = 0.
(i) Firstly show that â is not a Hermitian operator.
(ii) Let us define the number operator N̂ = ↠â. Show this is Hermitian.
Then show that,
[N̂ , â] = â , [N̂ , ↠] = â†

(iii) Consider the eigenstates |ni of N̂ so that N̂ = n|ni. Assume these are
orthonormal so hn|mi = nm . Show that,
p p
↠|ni = ↵ n + 1|n + 1i , â|ni = n|n 1i
where |↵| = | | = 1 are phases that we usually simply set to one. These
imply the interpretation that N̂ counts the number of ‘excitations’ in a
state |ni, and then ↠creates a new one and â destroys one. Note that
since these are identical excitations, and we can have multiple identical
excitations, these are bosonic in nature.
(iv) Show that taking the vacuum to be the state |0i, ie. with zero exci-
tations, then â annhilates the vacuum as â|0i = 0. Then show we may
take,
1
|ni = p (↠)n |0i
( n!)
for positive excitations n 0. Hence the space of states built from this
vacuum contains only positive excitation numbers.
(v) Using the fact that N̂ = ↠â show that eigenstates states |ni must
have n 0. Argue that this implies that eigenstates |ni must have
(non-negative) integer n.
Now go back to your previous QM courses and look at how one uses this
bosonic algebra to solve the quantum harmonic oscillator...

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Qu. 7
And something new....

Suppose we wish to have an operator algebra for fermions. This should

again have a vacuum, a number operator counting excitations, but now
should only allow one excitation to exist. This is achieved with the following
algebra;

{b̂, b̂† } = 1
{b̂, b̂} = 0
{b̂† , b̂† } = 0

where we have defined the Anti-commutator {A, B} = AB+BA.

(i) Show that b̂ is not a Hermitian operator.

(ii) Take |0i to be a state annilated by b̂. Let us define the state |1i =
b̂† |0i. Firstly show that b̂|1i = |0i. Then show that the space of states
generated by acting with b̂’s and b̂† ’s on the vacuum is simply,

|0i and |1i .

(iii) Define the operator N̂ = b̂† b̂. Show that N̂ |ni = n|ni for n = 0, 1,
so we again interpret n as the excitation number, and N̂ the number
operator, and b̂† and b̂ create and destroy the excitation. Since we can
only have one excitation this algebra now has a fermionic nature.

Note you have met this algebra when discussing fermionic two-state systems
such as the spin up-down states | "i = |1i and | #i = |0i.