Operating System MODULE – 01

SUPER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between the following terms.

(i) Multiprogramming and Multitasking
(ii) Multiprocessor System and Clustered System
2. Define operating Systems. Explain the dual-mode operating system
with a neat diagram.
3. With a neat diagram, explain the concept of the virtual machine.
4. Explain the layered approach of operating system structure with a
supporting diagram.
5. What are system calls? Briefly point out its types with illustrations.
6. Explain the services of the operating system that are helpful for the
user and the system.

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1. Distinguish between the following terms. (10 Marks)
(i) Multiprogramming and Multitasking (ii) Multiprocessor System and Clustered System
(i) Multiprogramming vs. Multitasking
Multiprogramming:
 Definition: Multiprogramming is a technique that allows multiple programs to be loaded into memory and
executed by the CPU. The operating system manages these programs, switching between them to keep the
CPU busy.
 How it Works: When one program waits (e.g., for I/O operations), the CPU switches to another program.
This ensures the CPU is never idle.
 Objective: The main goal is to keep the CPU utilized by running multiple jobs in memory.
 User Interaction: In multiprogramming systems, there is no direct interaction with the user during program
execution.
Multitasking:
 Definition: Multitasking is an advanced form of multiprogramming where a CPU switches between tasks
quickly, so the user feels that all programs are running simultaneously.
 How it Works: It works on the same principle as multiprogramming but with more frequent switching of
tasks, allowing users to interact with the system in real-time (e.g., typing a document while listening to
music).
 Objective: The goal is to make the user feel that all tasks are being executed simultaneously with short
response times.
 User Interaction: Users can interact with the system while tasks are running in the background.
Key Differences Between Multiprogramming and Multitasking:

Multiprogramming Multitasking
Focuses on keeping the CPU busy by running Allows multiple tasks to be executed seemingly simultaneously,
multiple programs. giving users interactive experiences.

CPU switches between jobs but without direct Users can interact with programs while they run.
user interaction.
No real-time response for the user. Real-time response, often with short delays.

(ii) Multiprocessor System vs. Clustered System

Multiprocessor System:
 Definition: A multiprocessor system is a computer system with two or more processors that share the same
memory and peripheral devices. These systems can perform parallel processing to speed up task execution.
 How it Works: The processors in a multiprocessor system work together to handle different parts of a
program simultaneously.
 Advantages:
o Increased throughput: More processors can perform tasks at the same time.
o Economy of Scale: Costs are lower compared to using multiple single processors.

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o Increased Reliability: If one processor fails, others can take over the work.
 Types of Multiprocessor Systems:
o Asymmetric Multiprocessing: One master processor controls the other processors.
o Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): All processors have equal access to the system and share the
work.
Clustered System:
 Definition: A clustered system consists of multiple independent computers connected through a network that
work together as a unified system. Each computer in the cluster works on different tasks but shares resources.
 How it Works: These systems provide high availability by making sure services continue even if one or more
systems fail. Clustering can be used to store copies of files to prevent data loss.
 Advantages:
o High Availability: Services remain active even if one system fails.
o Fault Tolerance: If one node (system) fails, another takes over its role.
 Types of Clustered Systems:
o Asymmetric Clustering: One system runs active services, and another remains on standby to take
over if the active one fails.
o Symmetric Clustering: All systems in the cluster are actively working and monitoring each other.
Key Differences Between Multiprocessor System and Clustered System:

Multiprocessor System Clustered System

Multiple processors within a single system. Multiple independent systems connected via a network.

Share the same memory and peripherals. Systems share resources like data but not physical memory.

More efficient for parallel processing. Provides high availability and fault tolerance.
All processors are tightly coupled and operate as a Each system in a cluster is loosely coupled and works
single unit. independently.

2. Define operating Systems. Explain the dual-mode operating system with a neat diagram. 7marks
Operating System and Dual-Mode Operation (8 Marks)
An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer
hardware. It manages computer hardware and allows users to execute programs in a convenient and efficient way.
Dual-Mode Operation
Dual-Mode Operation refers to a system in which the computer operates in two modes: User Mode and Kernel
Mode. This distinction helps in protecting the operating system from faulty user programs and prevents user programs
from interfering with each other.
1. User Mode:
 User Mode is the mode in which user applications (like games, text editors, etc.) run.

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 In this mode, the program has limited access to the system's resources and cannot directly access hardware or
perform critical tasks.
 Any errors in user applications won't affect the OS or other running programs.
2. Kernel Mode:
 Kernel Mode is the mode in which the operating system runs.
 The OS has full control over all resources, like memory, hardware, and devices, and can execute all types of
instructions.
 In this mode, the OS manages system tasks like managing memory, hardware access, and process scheduling.

How It Works:
 A special hardware feature called the mode bit indicates which mode the system is in: Kernel Mode (bit = 0)
or User Mode (bit = 1).
 When a user program needs help from the OS, like opening a file, it makes a system call, which causes a
switch from User Mode to Kernel Mode.
 Once the OS completes the task (such as reading a file), it switches back to User Mode to return control to the
user program.
Advantages of Dual-Mode Operation:
1. Protection:
o The system is protected from user program errors. User programs cannot directly harm or interfere
with the operating system or other programs.
2. Security:
o The OS ensures that user programs cannot access sensitive resources or execute privileged operations
without permission.
3. Efficient Resource Management:
o The OS can manage system resources (like memory, CPU time, and devices) fairly and efficiently
between different programs.

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3. Define virtual machine .With a neat diagram explain the working of virtual machine. 8 marks
Virtual Machine (VM)
A virtual machine abstracts the hardware of a computer (CPU, memory, storage, etc.) to create multiple independent
execution environments. Each environment behaves as though it is a separate computer.

Key Features:
1. Hardware Abstraction:
o Creates an illusion that each VM has its own processor and memory.
2. Host OS and Guest OS:
o The main operating system installed on the hardware is the Host OS, while the operating systems
running in virtual machines are Guest OS.
3. Execution Modes:
o The Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) operates in kernel mode.
o Virtual machines run in user mode and rely on the host OS for hardware access.
4. First Implementation:
o Virtual machines were introduced in 1972 with the VM Operating System on IBM mainframes.
Implementation:
1. The virtual machine software (VMM) is responsible for creating and managing VMs.
2. The VMM duplicates the underlying hardware and handles the two modes of execution:
o Kernel Mode: Where the host OS and VMM operate to control hardware.
o User Mode: Where the virtual machine operates, relying on the host OS for hardware access.
3. The complexity lies in emulating the entire hardware environment, ensuring that each virtual machine
functions as an independent system.
Conclusion
Virtual machines enable multiple operating systems to run simultaneously on a single machine, providing isolation,
flexibility, and efficient resource utilization.

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4.Explain layered approach.Mention its advantages and disadvantages. 5 marks
.Layered Approach
The layered approach is a design method where the operating system (OS) is divided into several layers, each built
on top of the other. This structure provides a modular and systematic way of developing and managing the OS.
Key Features:
1. Division into Layers:
o Each layer provides specific functions or services.
o Layer 0: Hardware (lowest level, interacts directly with
the physical system).
o Top Layer: User interface (interacts with the user).
2. Interaction Between Layers:
o Each layer uses the services of the layer directly below it.
o This separation ensures that each layer only focuses on its specific tasks without worrying about the
details of lower layers.
3. Encapsulation:
o A higher layer does not need to know how lower layers are implemented, only the services they
provide.
o This abstraction hides the complexity of lower layers from upper ones.
Advantages:
1. Simplicity in Design and Debugging:
o Each layer can be developed and debugged independently.
o If a problem arises in one layer, it can be isolated since lower layers would already be tested and
debugged.
2. Modularity:
o Each layer performs a well-defined function, making the system easier to manage and modify.
3. Ease of Maintenance:
o Updating or replacing a layer does not affect other layers as long as the service interfaces remain the
same.
Disadvantages:
1. Defining Layers:
o Properly defining the functionality and interaction of each layer can be challenging.
2. Performance Overhead:
o To perform a task, a request from the topmost layer must pass through all intermediate layers to reach
the hardware. This increases system call overhead and reduces efficiency.

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5. What is system calls? Briefly explain the types of system calls. (10 Marks)
System Calls and Their Types
System calls are the interface between user programs and the operating system (OS). They allow programs to request
services from the OS, such as managing files, memory, processes, and hardware devices. System calls are typically
written in languages like C or C++, though some may be written in assembly for better performance.
When a user program needs to perform a specific action that requires OS intervention, such as opening a file,
allocating memory, or creating a process, it makes a system call. These calls allow the program to interact with the OS
and perform tasks that involve system resources.
Types of System Calls
System calls can be categorized into six major types based on the functions they perform:
1. Process Control
These system calls manage processes and their execution. Key functions include:
o Creating and terminating processes.
o Pausing, resuming, and scheduling processes.
o Setting or getting process attributes like priority.
o Waiting for a process or event to finish and signaling when an event occurs.
o Allocating and freeing memory for processes. Examples: create process, terminate process, wait,
signal.
2. File Management
File management system calls handle operations related to files and directories. Common operations include:
o Creating, deleting, opening, and closing files.
o Reading and writing data to/from files.
o Moving the file pointer within the file.
o Setting and retrieving file attributes like file name, permissions, etc. Examples: create file, open, read,
write, close.
3. Device Management
These system calls manage device operations, including controlling physical or virtual devices. Operations
include:
o Requesting and releasing devices.
o Reading from or writing to devices.
o Attaching or detaching devices from the system.
o Retrieving and setting device attributes. Examples: request device, release device, read, write.
4. Information Maintenance
Information maintenance system calls deal with system-related information like time, date, and system
statistics. They allow the OS to provide information to users or update system attributes. Operations include:
o Retrieving the current time, date, system status, or user information.
o Setting and getting process, file, or device attributes. Examples: get time, set date, get system info.

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5. Communication
Communication system calls enable processes to communicate with each other, either within the same system
or across different systems. There are two types of communication models:
o Message Passing: Allows processes to exchange messages. This is simple to implement and useful
for small data exchanges.
o Shared Memory: Enables processes to share memory space for faster communication, especially
when large amounts of data are exchanged. System calls in this category help establish connections,
send/receive messages, and manage shared memory. Examples: create connection, send message,
receive message, attach shared memory.
6. Protection
Protection system calls manage access control and security within the system. They help control which users
or processes can access certain resources and ensure that unauthorized access is prevented. These system calls
allow the OS to enforce access permissions and adjust security settings. Examples: set permissions, grant
access, deny access.

6. Explain the different services that an operating system provides. 10 marks

Services Provided by an Operating System
An operating system (OS) offers an environment for executing programs and provides various services to programs
and their users. These services can be broadly categorized as follows:
User-Focused Services
1. User Interfaces (UI):
o Provides ways for users to interact with the system.
o Types:
 Command-Line Interface (CLI): Commands are typed into a terminal (e.g., sh, csh).
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Interaction via windows, pointing devices (mouse), and
keyboard (e.g., Windows, Gnome).
 Batch Interface: Commands and directives are stored in a file, which is executed as a batch.
2. Program Execution:
o Loads programs into memory, runs them, and terminates them (normally or abnormally).
3. I/O Operations:
o Manages data transfer between I/O devices (e.g., keyboard, printers) and the system.
o Uses device drivers for handling specific hardware.
4. File-System Manipulation:
o Enables creating, deleting, reading, and writing files or directories.
o Provides file search, listing, and permission change capabilities.
5. Communication:
o Facilitates communication between processes:
 Inter-Process Communication (IPC) for processes on the same machine.

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 Message passing or shared memory for processes on different machines.
6. Error Detection:
o Identifies and handles hardware (e.g., power failures, memory errors) and software (e.g., arithmetic
overflow, illegal memory access) errors.

System-Focused Services
1. Resource Allocation:
o Distributes system resources like CPU cycles, memory, and I/O devices among users and jobs.
2. Accounting:
o Tracks system activity and resource usage for billing or optimizing performance.
3. Protection and Security:
o Ensures controlled access to resources and information to prevent interference between processes.
o Implements security measures like passwords to protect the system from unauthorized access.

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-: OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS :-

7. Explain microkernel approach .What are its benefits 5 marks
Microkernel Approach
The microkernel approach designs the operating system by keeping the kernel minimal and efficient. It removes all
non-essential functions from the kernel and implements them as system and user-level programs.
Key Features:
1. Minimal Kernel:
o The kernel only includes essential functions like process management, memory management, and
message passing.
o Other services (e.g., device drivers, file systems) are implemented as separate system applications in
user space.
2. Communication Focus:
o The primary role of the microkernel is to provide communication between the client programs and the
services running in user space.
Benefits:
1. Easier System Expansion:
o Adding new features or services doesn’t require modifying the kernel; instead, new applications can
be added to user space.
2. Fault Isolation:
o Since most services run in user space, crashes in one service are less likely to affect the entire system.
3. Portability:
o The small kernel is easier to adapt to different hardware platforms.
4. Examples:
o The Mach microkernel is a widely known example and is a core part of macOS.
Disadvantage:
1. Performance Overhead:
o Communication between the user space and the kernel can introduce delays, making microkernels
slower compared to traditional monolithic kernels.

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8. What Are the benefits of virtual machine 10 marks

Benefits of Virtual Machines (VMs)
1. Hardware Sharing:
o Multiple operating systems can run simultaneously on the same hardware, maximizing resource
utilization.
2. Isolation and Security:
o VMs are isolated from one another and the host system.
o A virus or failure in one guest OS does not affect other VMs or the host system.
3. Resource Sharing:
o VMs can share software resources through:
 Shared File Systems: A common storage space.
 Virtual Networks: For communication between VMs.
4. Elimination of Downtime for Development:
o System changes or testing can occur in one VM while user programs run in another, avoiding system
interruptions.
5. Rapid Software Testing and Portability:
o Developers can run and test multiple operating systems concurrently on the same hardware.
6. System Consolidation:
o Multiple systems can be consolidated into a single physical machine, reducing hardware costs.
7. Simulation:
o VMs can emulate systems with different architectures. For example, guest systems compiled for a
different architecture can run using an emulator that translates their instructions into the host system's
instruction set.
8. Para-Virtualization:
o VMs can present a slightly modified system to the guest OS, requiring some adjustments in the guest
OS to run efficiently.

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9. Define the essential properties of the following type of operating system 10 marks
a)time sharing b)distributed c)real time d)multiprogramming
Essential Properties of Operating Systems
a) Time-Sharing Systems
1. Definition:
o Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to interact with the computer simultaneously. A single
CPU executes multiple jobs by switching between them so quickly that users feel their programs are
running concurrently.
2. Key Features:
o Interactive Environment: Users interact with the system directly, receiving results in real time.
o Short Response Time: The system ensures response time is less than one second for user tasks.
o User Perception: Each user feels as though the system is dedicated to them alone.
o Job Switching: Frequent switching among jobs provides efficient CPU utilization.

b) Distributed Systems
1. Definition:
o A distributed system is a network of computers that work together to provide shared access to
resources, improving computation speed, data availability, and reliability.
2. Key Features:
o Resource Sharing: Systems can share hardware, software, and data efficiently.
o Network Communication: Communication happens using protocols like TCP/IP over LAN, WAN,
or wireless technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
o Fault Tolerance: If one system fails, others can continue functioning.
o Scalability: More systems can be added to meet increasing demands.
c) Real-Time Systems
1. Definition:
o Real-time systems are designed to process and respond to inputs within a strict deadline. These
systems are critical where timing is crucial, such as in medical devices or automotive systems.
2. Key Features:
o Hard Real-Time Systems: Missing a deadline can lead to catastrophic consequences (e.g.,
pacemakers, flight control).

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o Soft Real-Time Systems: Missing a deadline is undesirable but not catastrophic (e.g., video
streaming).
o Deterministic Behavior: Ensures tasks are completed predictably within deadlines.
o High Reliability: Suitable for critical applications like defense and industrial automation.
d) Multiprogramming Systems
1. Definition:
o Multiprogramming systems allow multiple jobs to reside in memory simultaneously, increasing CPU
utilization by ensuring the CPU always has a job to execute.
2. Key Features:
o Job Pool: A set of jobs in secondary storage is managed, with selected jobs loaded into memory.
o CPU Utilization: The CPU switches between jobs whenever one is waiting for I/O operations,
ensuring it never sits idle.
o Efficient Resource Use: Maximizes the utilization of CPU, memory, and peripheral devices.
o No User Interaction: Unlike time-sharing systems, multiprogramming does not support direct user
interaction.

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10. Explain the different services that an operating system provides. 10 marks
Services Provided by an Operating System
An operating system (OS) offers an environment for executing programs and provides various services to programs
and their users. These services can be broadly categorized as follows:
User-Focused Services
7. User Interfaces (UI):
o Provides ways for users to interact with the system.
o Types:
 Command-Line Interface (CLI): Commands are typed into a terminal (e.g., sh, csh).
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Interaction via windows, pointing devices (mouse), and
keyboard (e.g., Windows, Gnome).
 Batch Interface: Commands and directives are stored in a file, which is executed as a batch.
8. Program Execution:
o Loads programs into memory, runs them, and terminates them (normally or abnormally).
9. I/O Operations:
o Manages data transfer between I/O devices (e.g., keyboard, printers) and the system.
o Uses device drivers for handling specific hardware.
10. File-System Manipulation:
o Enables creating, deleting, reading, and writing files or directories.
o Provides file search, listing, and permission change capabilities.
11. Communication:
o Facilitates communication between processes:
 Inter-Process Communication (IPC) for processes on the same machine.
 Message passing or shared memory for processes on different machines.
12. Error Detection:
o Identifies and handles hardware (e.g., power failures, memory errors) and software (e.g., arithmetic
overflow, illegal memory access) errors.

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System-Focused Services
4. Resource Allocation:
o Distributes system resources like CPU cycles, memory, and I/O devices among users and jobs.
5. Accounting:
o Tracks system activity and resource usage for billing or optimizing performance.
6. Protection and Security:
o Ensures controlled access to resources and information to prevent interference between processes.
o Implements security measures like passwords to protect the system from unauthorized access.

11. What are the 5 major activities of an operating system with regard to process management 5 marks
5 Major Activities of an Operating System in Process Management
1. Scheduling Processes and Threads on the CPU:
o The OS decides which process or thread gets to use the CPU at any given time. It manages CPU time
to ensure efficient execution of processes.
2. Creating and Deleting Processes:
o The OS is responsible for creating new processes (both user and system processes) and deleting
processes when they are finished or no longer needed.
3. Suspending and Resuming Processes:
o The OS can temporarily stop a process (suspend it) and later resume it, allowing for multitasking and
better resource management.
4. Process Synchronization:
o The OS provides mechanisms to ensure that processes operate in a coordinated manner, especially
when multiple processes need to access shared resources without conflicts.
5. Process Communication:
o The OS enables communication between processes, allowing them to exchange data or messages,
especially in systems where processes need to collaborate.

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12. what is operation system. What are the main purposes of operating system 5 marks
What is an Operating System?
An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer
hardware. It manages the computer's hardware and allows the user to run programs in an efficient and convenient way.

Main Purposes of an Operating System

1. Convenience:
o The OS makes the computer easier to use by handling the complexity of hardware management, so
users don't have to worry about technical details.
2. Efficient Use of Hardware:
o The OS ensures that the computer’s resources, like the CPU, memory, and storage, are used in the
most efficient way possible.
3. User Interface:
o It provides an environment where users can easily interact with the computer, either through a
command line or a graphical user interface (GUI).
4. Resource Allocation:
o The OS allocates resources such as CPU time, memory, and devices to different tasks or users as
needed, ensuring everything runs smoothly.

13. Explain the multiprocessor system 5 marks

Multiprocessor System
A multiprocessor system is a computer system with two or more processors that share the computer's bus, clock,
memory, and peripherals. These systems are also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled systems.
Key features:
 Parallel Processing: Multiple processors execute tasks in parallel, which increases the system’s throughput
and performance.
 Shared Memory: In many multiprocessor systems, all processors share the same memory, allowing them to
communicate and access data faster.
Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems
1. Increased Throughput:
o With multiple processors, different programs can be executed simultaneously, increasing the overall
throughput of the system. However, performance does not increase linearly with the number of
processors due to overhead in coordinating and sharing resources.
2. Economy of Scale:
o Multiprocessor systems are more cost-effective than having an equivalent number of single-processor
systems. Shared resources like peripherals and storage reduce the overall cost of the system.
3. Increased Reliability:

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o If one processor fails, the system does not stop. Other processors take over the failed processor's
work, ensuring that the system continues to function. There are two methods to maintain reliability:
 Graceful Degradation: If a processor fails, others gradually take over the workload, so the
system continues with reduced performance.
 Fault Tolerant: The system detects and corrects the failure of a processor, minimizing the
impact.

14. Describe the difference between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing 5 MARKS

Feature Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP) Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)

Processor Master-Slave (One master processor Peer-to-Peer (All processors are equal)
Relationship controls others)
Task Assignment Master processor assigns tasks to slave All processors share and execute tasks
processors independently
Processor Control Master processor controls the system, All processors control their own
slave processors follow instructions operations independently
Memory Access Memory access is typically controlled by All processors share the same memory
the master processor
Communication Communication between processors is Faster communication between
limited (master-slave) processors due to shared memory
Scalability Limited scalability due to master-slave High scalability, performance
design increases with additional processors
Example Systems Early systems like some mainframes and Modern systems like Windows, Linux,
embedded systems and Mac OS X

15. Explain the distinguishing feature of 1)real time system 2)multiprocessor system 10 MARKS
Distinguishing Features of Real-Time Systems and Multiprocessor Systems
1) Real-Time Systems
A Real-Time System is a type of operating system that is designed to handle applications where timely and
predictable responses are critical. These systems are used in scenarios where tasks need to be completed within a
certain time limit.
Key Features:
 Time Sensitivity: Real-time systems must respond to inputs within a fixed time frame. Missing this time
frame could lead to failure in critical operations (e.g., in medical devices or air traffic control systems).
 Types of Real-Time Systems:
o Hard Real-Time: The system must meet deadlines, and missing a deadline could result in
catastrophic failure (e.g., life-support systems).
o Soft Real-Time: Deadlines are important but missing them doesn't cause total failure. However, it
may lead to performance degradation (e.g., video streaming).
 Deterministic Behavior: The system's response time must be predictable and guaranteed, allowing for precise
control over the timing of tasks.
Distinguishing Feature: The real-time aspect of these systems is their ability to meet strict deadlines and provide
deterministic behavior for time-sensitive operations.

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2) Multiprocessor Systems
A Multiprocessor System involves multiple processors within the same computer system, working together to
perform tasks more efficiently. These systems can handle multiple processes simultaneously, which enhances overall
system performance and reliability.
Key Features:
 Parallel Processing: Multiple processors execute tasks in parallel, which increases the system’s throughput
and performance.
 Shared Memory: In many multiprocessor systems, all processors share the same memory, allowing them to
communicate and access data faster.
 Types of Multiprocessor Systems:
o Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): All processors are equal, with no master-slave relationship.
Each processor has access to shared memory and peripheral devices.
o Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP): One processor (master) controls the other processors (slaves).
The master processor schedules tasks, and the slave processors execute them.
 Fault Tolerance: If one processor fails, the others can continue working, ensuring the system remains
functional.
Distinguishing Feature: The main feature of multiprocessor systems is the use of multiple processors working
together to handle tasks, improving system performance and reliability.

16.Explain the function of memory management 5 marks

Function of Memory Management
Memory management is a critical function of the operating system that ensures efficient use of the computer's main
memory (RAM). It enables the system to run multiple programs effectively and improves CPU utilization and system
performance.
Key Functions of Memory Management:
1. Tracking Memory Usage: The operating system keeps track of which parts of the memory are in use and
which are free. This helps in managing memory allocation for different processes.
2. Allocating and Deallocating Memory: The OS is responsible for allocating memory to programs and
processes when they are executed and deallocating memory when it is no longer needed, ensuring efficient
memory use.
3. Managing Memory Moves: The system decides which processes or data should be moved into or out of
memory based on available space and the needs of running programs.

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17. What is the purpose of system calls.
Purpose of System Calls
System calls act as the interface between user programs and the operating system, enabling programs to request
services from the OS. They allow a program to interact with the underlying hardware and perform tasks such as file
handling, process management, and communication.
Key points:
1. Interface to OS Services: System calls provide a way for programs to request operating system services, like
reading from files, displaying messages, or managing processes.
2. Program Execution: Programs use system calls to perform tasks like opening files, reading data, writing to
the screen, and handling errors. For example, to copy a file, a program would use system calls to open the
files, read data from the source, write it to the destination, and close the files.
3. API Interaction: Most programmers interact with system calls through an Application Programming
Interface (API), which abstracts the details of the system calls and makes programs portable across different
systems.
4. Parameter Passing: When making a system call, parameters (such as file names or data) can be passed to the
OS in different ways, such as using registers, memory addresses, or the stack.

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