Konten dari https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/SQL
Structured Query Language (SQL) (pronounced /ˌɛsˌkjuˈɛl/ S-Q-L; or alternatively as
/ˈsiːkwəl/ "sequel")[4][5] is a domain-specific language used to manage data, especially in a
relational database management system (RDBMS). It is particularly useful in handling
structured data, i.e., data incorporating relations among entities and variables.

Introduced in the 1970s, SQL offered two main advantages over older read–write APIs such
as ISAM or VSAM. Firstly, it introduced the concept of accessing many records with one
single command. Secondly, it eliminates the need to specify how to reach a record, i.e., with
or without an index.

Originally based upon relational algebra and tuple relational calculus, SQL consists of many
types of statements,[6] which may be informally classed as sublanguages, commonly: Data
query Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Control Language (DCL), and
Data Manipulation Language (DML).[7]

The scope of SQL includes data query, data manipulation (insert, update, and delete), data
definition (schema creation and modification), and data access control. Although SQL is
essentially a declarative language (4GL), it also includes procedural elements.

SQL was one of the first commercial languages to use Edgar F. Codd's relational model. The
model was described in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large
Shared Data Banks".[8] Despite not entirely adhering to the relational model as described
by Codd, SQL became the most widely used database language.[9][10]

SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986 and of
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987.[11] Since then, the
standard has been revised multiple times to include a larger set of features and incorporate
common extensions. Despite the existence of standards, virtually no implementations in
existence adhere to it fully, and most SQL code requires at least some changes before being
ported to different database systems.

SQL was initially developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce after
learning about the relational model from Edgar F. Codd[12] in the early 1970s.[13] This
version, initially called SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was designed to
manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original quasirelational database management
system, System R, which a group at IBM San Jose Research Laboratory had developed
during the 1970s.[13]

Chamberlin and Boyce's first attempt at a relational database language was SQUARE
(Specifying Queries in A Relational Environment), but it was difficult to use due to
subscript/superscript notation. After moving to the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1973,
they began work on a sequel to SQUARE.[12] The original name SEQUEL, which is widely
regarded as a pun on QUEL, the query language of Ingres,[14] was later changed to SQL
(dropping the vowels) because "SEQUEL" was a trademark of the UK-based Hawker
Siddeley Dynamics Engineering Limited company.[15] The label SQL later became the
acronym for Structured Query Language.

After testing SQL at customer test sites to determine the usefulness and practicality of the
system, IBM began developing commercial products based on their System R prototype,
including System/38, SQL/DS, and IBM Db2, which were commercially available in 1979,
1981, and 1983, respectively.[16]

In the late 1970s, Relational Software, Inc. (now Oracle Corporation) saw the potential of
the concepts described by Codd, Chamberlin, and Boyce, and developed their own SQL-
based RDBMS with aspirations of selling it to the U.S. Navy, Central Intelligence Agency, and
other U.S. government agencies. In June 1979, Relational Software introduced one of the
first commercially available implementations of SQL, Oracle V2 (Version2) for VAX
computers.

By 1986, ANSI and ISO standard groups officially adopted the standard "Database Language
SQL" language definition. New versions of the standard were published in 1989, 1992, 1996,
1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2011,[12] 2016 and most recently, 2023.[17]

The SQL language is subdivided into several language elements, including:

SQL is designed for a specific purpose: to query data contained in a relational database. SQL
is a set-based, declarative programming language, not an imperative programming language
like C or BASIC. However, extensions to Standard SQL add procedural programming
language functionality, such as control-of-flow constructs.
In addition to the standard SQL/PSM extensions and proprietary SQL extensions,
procedural and object-oriented programmability is available on many SQL platforms via
DBMS integration with other languages. The SQL standard defines SQL/JRT extensions (SQL
Routines and Types for the Java Programming Language) to support Java code in SQL
databases. Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses the SQLCLR (SQL Server Common Language
Runtime) to host managed .NET assemblies in the database, while prior versions of SQL
Server were restricted to unmanaged extended stored procedures primarily written in C.
PostgreSQL lets users write functions in a wide variety of languages—including Perl,
Python, Tcl, JavaScript (PL/V8) and C.[19]

SQL implementations are incompatible between vendors and do not necessarily completely
follow standards. In particular, date and time syntax, string concatenation, NULLs, and
comparison case sensitivity vary from vendor to vendor. PostgreSQL[20] and Mimer
SQL[21] strive for standards compliance, though PostgreSQL does not adhere to the
standard in all cases. For example, the folding of unquoted names to lower case in
PostgreSQL is incompatible with the SQL standard,[22] which says that unquoted names
should be folded to upper case.[23] Thus, according to the standard, Foo should be
equivalent to FOO, not foo.

Popular implementations of SQL commonly omit support for basic features of Standard SQL,
such as the DATE or TIME data types. The most obvious such examples, and incidentally the
most popular commercial and proprietary SQL DBMSs, are Oracle (whose DATE behaves as
DATETIME,[24][25] and lacks a TIME type)[26] and MS SQL Server (before the 2008
version). As a result, SQL code can rarely be ported between database systems without
modifications.

Several reasons for the lack of portability between database systems include:

SQL was adopted as a standard by the ANSI in 1986 as SQL-86[28] and the ISO in 1987.[11]
It is maintained by ISO/IEC JTC 1, Information technology, Subcommittee SC 32, Data
management and interchange.

Until 1996, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) data-management
standards program certified SQL DBMS compliance with the SQL standard. Vendors now
self-certify the compliance of their products.[29]

The original standard declared that the official pronunciation for "SQL" was an initialism:
/ˌɛsˌkjuːˈɛl/ ("ess cue el").[9] Regardless, many English-speaking database professionals
(including Donald Chamberlin himself[30]) use the acronym-like pronunciation of
/ˈsiːkwəl/ ("sequel"),[31] mirroring the language's prerelease development name,
"SEQUEL".[13][15][30] The SQL standard has gone through a number of revisions:

The standard is commonly denoted by the pattern: ISO/IEC 9075-n:yyyy Part n: title, or, as a
shortcut, ISO/IEC 9075. Interested parties may purchase the standards documents from
ISO,[36] IEC, or ANSI. Some old drafts are freely available.[37][38]

ISO/IEC 9075 is complemented by ISO/IEC 13249: SQL Multimedia and Application

A distinction should be made between alternatives to SQL as a language, and alternatives to

Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA) was designed by a workgroup within

An interactive user or program can issue SQL statements to a local RDB and receive tables
of data and status indicators in reply from remote RDBs. SQL statements can also be
compiled and stored in remote RDBs as packages and then invoked by package name. This
is important for the efficient operation of application programs that issue complex, high-
frequency queries. It is especially important when the tables to be accessed are located in
remote systems.

The messages, protocols, and structural components of DRDA are defined by the Distributed
Data Management Architecture. Distributed SQL processing ala DRDA is distinctive from
contemporary distributed SQL databases.

SQL deviates in several ways from its theoretical foundation, the relational model and its
tuple calculus. In that model, a table is a set of tuples, while in SQL, tables and query results
are lists of rows; the same row may occur multiple times, and the order of rows can be
employed in queries (e.g., in the LIMIT clause).
Critics argue that SQL should be replaced with a language that returns strictly to the original
foundation: for example, see The Third Manifesto by Hugh Darwen and C.J. Date (2006,
ISBN 0-321-39942-0).

Early specifications did not support major features, such as primary keys. Result sets could
not be named, and subqueries had not been defined. These were added in 1992.[12]

The lack of sum types has been described as a roadblock to full use of SQL's user-defined
types. JSON support, for example, needed to be added by a new standard in 2016.[42]

The concept of Null is the subject of some debate. The Null marker indicates the absence of a
value, and is distinct from a value of 0 for an integer column or an empty string for a text
column. The concept of Nulls enforces the 3-valued-logic in SQL, which is a concrete
implementation of the general 3-valued logic.[12]

Another popular criticism is that it allows duplicate rows, making integration with
languages such as Python, whose data types might make accurately representing the data
difficult,[12] in terms of parsing and by the absence of modularity. This is usually avoided
by declaring a primary key, or a unique constraint, with one or more columns that uniquely
identify a row in the table.

In a sense similar to object–relational impedance mismatch, a mismatch occurs between the

The SQL standard defines three kinds of data types (chapter 4.1.1 of SQL/Foundation):

Constructed types are one of ARRAY, MULTISET, REF(erence), or ROW. User-defined types
are comparable to classes in object-oriented language with their own constructors,
observers, mutators, methods, inheritance, overloading, overwriting, interfaces, and so on.
Predefined data types are intrinsically supported by the implementation.