MODULE – 4

Q.1) Discuss about two reaction theory and voltage regulation

ANS. Two-Reaction Theory and Voltage Regulation in Synchronous Machines

1. Two-Reaction Theory

The Two-Reaction Theory is primarily used to explain and analyze the armature reaction in synchronous
machines. It divides the total armature reaction into two components:

 Direct Axis Reaction (d-axis): The component of the armature reaction that is aligned with
the machine's magnetic field (the direct axis, or d-axis). This reaction produces a
magnetomotive force (MMF) that either strengthens or weakens the main field, depending
on the machine's operating conditions.
 Quadrature Axis Reaction (q-axis): The component of the armature reaction that is
perpendicular to the direct axis (the quadrature axis, or q-axis). This component creates a
cross-magnetic field that induces a voltage opposing the main field and can affect the
machine’s power factor.

These two components, the d-axis and q-axis reactions, are the fundamental reactions in
synchronous machines and represent the interaction between the armature current and the
main magnetic field. The two-reaction theory allows us to separately consider how each of these
components affects the overall operation of the machine.

Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation refers to the change in the terminal voltage of a synchronous machine as
the load varies, usually expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage.

Definition of Voltage Regulation:

Importance of Voltage Regulation:

 Constant Voltage Supply: The ability to maintain a constant voltage under varying load
conditions is essential for the proper functioning of electrical equipment connected to the
generator.
 Power Quality: High voltage regulation (large voltage drop with load) can indicate poor
performance, inefficiency, or excessive loss, affecting the quality of the electrical supply.
 Q.2) Describe the parallel operations of generator and load sharing

Parallel operation and load sharing are processes that allow multiple
generators to work together to increase power generation and capacity.
Load sharing
When several alternators are required to run in parallel, it probably
happens that their rated outputs differ. In such cases it is usual to
divide the total load between them in such a way that each
alternator takes the load in the same proportion of its rated load in
total rated outputs. The total load is not divided equally.
Alternatively,Bit may be desired to run one large alternator
permanently on full load, the fluctuations in load being borne by one
or more of the others.
Parallel operation
 The process of connecting multiple generators so they operate as one unit
 Paralleling switchgear synchronizes generators so they operate at the
same voltage and frequency
 Parallel operation increases capacity and can be used for backup power
Q.3) Write a note on hunting and damper windings. What are the causes and effects of
hunting in synchronous machine? How do you eleminate it.

Hunting in Synchronous Machines

Hunting refers to the oscillatory behavior or instability that can occur in the rotor of a
synchronous machine, such as a synchronous motor or generator, when it fails to stay locked
in synchrony with the electrical supply. It is characterized by oscillations in the rotor's speed
and angle, which can affect the machine's performance and cause mechanical stress, leading
to damage if not addressed.

Causes of Hunting in Synchronous Machines:

1. Sudden Changes in Load:

2. Fluctuations in the Excitation:.
3. Power System Disturbances:
4. Inertia of the Rotor:
5. Incorrect Synchronization:

Effects of Hunting in Synchronous Machines:

1. Mechanical Stress and Vibration:.

2. Loss of Synchronization
3. Instability in Power Generation
4. Increased Losses and Reduced Efficiency
5. Damaging to Bearings and Shaft

Damper Windings:

Damper windings are special windings placed on the rotor of synchronous machines
(typically induction motors or generators) to help suppress hunting and oscillations. These
windings are used to improve the stability of the machine, particularly during transient
conditions such as changes in load or disturbances in the power system.

Working Principle:
The damper windings work based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When the
rotor moves relative to the magnetic field in the stator, it induces currents in the damper
windings. The resulting magnetic fields from these currents create forces that resist the rotor's
oscillatory motion, thus damping the vibrations.

Elimination of Hunting:

1. Using Damper Windings: 7. Load Sharing between Synchronous Machines:

2. Proper Synchronization
3. Controlling Load Variations: 8. Avoiding Overload Conditions:
4. Improving Excitation Control:
5. Increasing Rotor Inertia
6. Use of Power System Stabilizers (PSS)
Q.4) Write a shorn note on capability curve

The capability curve is a graphical representation that shows the limits within which a
synchronous machine (such as a synchronous generator) can operate safely and efficiently. It
provides valuable information about the machine’s operational limits under various
conditions, including load, voltage, and excitation.

The capability curve typically depicts the relationship between two main parameters:

1. Field Current (Excitation) or Power Factor

2. Output Power (Real Power or kW)

It also includes reactive power (kVAR) that the generator can produce or absorb while
operating under different loading conditions.

Importance of the Capability Curve:

1. Indicates Safe Operating Zones:

The capability curve helps determine the safe limits for both active power (P) and
reactive power (Q) that the synchronous machine can generate. It prevents
overloading of the machine.
2. Determines Voltage Control Capacity:
By controlling the excitation (field current), the machine operator can adjust the
reactive power generation or absorption, as depicted on the capability curve, to help
regulate voltage levels on the grid.
3. System Design and Operation:
The capability curve is crucial for power system operators to ensure that the machine
is not operating outside its safe limits, which helps avoid failures and optimizes
performance.
Q.6) Draw Power angle diagram if synchronizing generator. Explain

Ans. The power angle diagram (also called the torque angle diagram) represents the relationship
between the electrical power output of a synchronous generator and the rotor angle, which is also
referred to as the power angle (δ\deltaδ). This diagram is crucial in understanding the stability and
operation of synchronous generators in a power system.

Power Angle Diagram Explanation:

1. X-Axis (Power Angle, δ):

o The horizontal axis of the diagram represents the power angle (δ), which is the angle
between the stator's magnetic field and the rotor's magnetic field.
o As the load on the synchronous generator changes, the power angle varies from 0°
(when there is no load) to a maximum value when the generator is running at full
load.
2. Y-Axis (Active Power, P):
o The vertical axis represents the active power (P), which is the real power delivered
by the generator to the grid or load. It is proportional to the sine of the power angle.
 Q.7) Write a note on voltage regulation by EMF method in Synchronized generator

The EMF method, also called the synchronous impedance method, is a technique used to
calculate the voltage regulation of a synchronous generator by approximating the effect of
armature reaction with a purely reactive impedance, known as the synchronous reactance
(Xs). This method relies on open-circuit and short-circuit tests to determine the generator's
internal generated voltage (Ea) and synchronous impedance (Zs), which are then used to
calculate the voltage drop under load conditions.
Key points about the EMF method:
 Concept:
The basic idea is to represent the armature reaction as a voltage drop across the
synchronous reactance, which is added to the resistive voltage drop in the armature
winding to determine the terminal voltage at different load conditions.
 Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC):
This test is performed by gradually increasing the field current while keeping the generator
running at synchronous speed with no load connected. The resulting curve of terminal
voltage versus field current provides the relationship between the field excitation and the
generated EMF.
 Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC):
In this test, the generator terminals are short-circuited while the field current is gradually
increased, allowing the determination of the short circuit current at different field
excitations. This is used to calculate the synchronous impedance (Zs).
 Calculation Steps:
 Determine Ea: Using the OCC, find the generated EMF (Ea) corresponding to the required
field current at full load.
 Calculate IaZs:*: Multiply the full load armature current (Ia) by the synchronous impedance (Zs)
obtained from the short circuit test.
 Voltage Regulation:
 Voltage at no load (Vn) = Ea
 Voltage at full load (Vf) = Ea - Ia*Zs
 Voltage regulation = ((Vn - Vf) / Vf) x 100%
 Q.8) How parallel operations of alternator are carried out? what are
the conditions to be satisfied

To operate alternators in parallel, you must ensure that they meet certain
conditions, including:
 Voltage: The terminal voltage of each alternator must be equal in
magnitude.
 Frequency: The operating frequency of each alternator must be the same.
 Phase sequence: The phase sequence of the bus bars must be the same
as the phase sequence of the incoming alternator.
 Phase angle: The phase angle of the incoming alternator must be the
same as the phase angle of the bus bars.
 Polarity: The polarity of the incoming alternator must be the same as the
polarity of the bus bars.

The process of operating alternators in parallel is called synchronizing.

How is synchronization achieved?
 Synchroscope: A device that indicates deviations in voltage, frequency,
and phase shift.
 Lamps: Lamps can be used to indicate when the alternators are
synchronized.
 Connections: Connections can be used to ensure that the alternator
voltage has similar magnitude, phase sequence, frequency, and zero
phase shift with the bus-bar voltage.
Q.9) What are the conditions for synchronization of alternator and explain the lamp dark
and lamp bright method using to synchronize single phase alternator

Conditions for Synchronization of an Alternator

1. Matching of Voltage:
o The terminal voltage of the alternator must be equal to the voltage of the grid or
system to which it is being synchronized. The difference in voltage should be
minimal, and the alternator should operate at the same voltage level as the grid
voltage.
2. Matching of Frequency:
o The frequency of the alternator should match the frequency of the power grid. If the
frequencies are not synchronized, there can be significant power disturbances and
even damage to the equipment.
3. Matching of Phase Sequence:
o The phase sequence of the incoming alternator must be the same as the phase
sequence of the grid (or the other alternator). If the phase sequence is incorrect, the
alternator will rotate in the wrong direction, causing damage and malfunction.
4. Matching of Phase Angle (Phase Position):
o The phase angle of the alternator must match the phase angle of the system. This
means that the voltages of the two systems should be in phase (i.e., the voltage
waveform of the incoming alternator must align with the grid's waveform). The
phase difference should be close to zero.

Once these conditions are met, the alternator can be connected to the system, and
synchronization will occur smoothly.

Lamp Dark and Lamp Bright Method

In this method, the alternator is synchronized using a three-phase lamp and the visual
observation of the lamp’s brightness. The key principle of this method is that the brightness
of the lamp will vary depending on the difference in the phase angle between the alternator
and the grid.

Steps Involved in the Lamp Dark and Lamp Bright Method:

1. Setup:
o A three-phase lamp is connected between the alternator’s terminals and the grid.
The lamp is designed to light up or darken based on the phase difference between
the alternator and the grid.
2. Initial Condition:
o Initially, when the alternator is running but not synchronized with the grid, the lamp
will glow dimly because the alternator and the grid are out of phase, causing
fluctuating voltage across the lamp.
3. Adjusting the Speed of the Alternator:
o The alternator’s speed is adjusted (using the prime mover, such as a turbine) so that
its frequency approaches the grid frequency. As the alternator approaches
synchronization, the phase difference between the two voltages reduces.
4. Observation of the Lamp:
 o When the alternator is running too fast or too slow, the lamp will appear bright or
dim, as the phase difference creates a greater voltage difference.
o As the phase angle between the alternator and the grid gets closer, the lamp will
become dimmer. When the two voltages are in phase, the lamp will go completely
dark, indicating that the alternator is now synchronized with the grid.
5. Synchronizing the Alternator:
o The alternator’s field excitation or speed is adjusted so that the lamp appears as
dark as possible. This indicates that the phase angle between the alternator and the
grid is zero, meaning the alternator is now in sync with the grid.
o Once the lamp is dark, the synchronizing circuit breaker is closed, connecting the
alternator to the grid.
Q.10) Define synchronization explain any one method of synchronization in synchronize generator

Synchronization is the process of matching the voltage, frequency, and phase angle of a generator
or alternator with that of a grid or another generator. This is necessary to ensure safe and efficient
parallel operation of generators, preventing damage to equipment and ensuring reliable power
supply.

Synchroscope Method

The Synchroscope Method is a widely used technique for synchronizing generators. This method
uses a synchroscope, an electrical measuring instrument, to indicate the phase difference between
the generator voltage and the grid voltage.

Equipment Required

- Synchroscope

- Generator

- Grid connection

- Synchronization panel

Procedure

1. Ensure the generator is running at a speed slightly lower than the synchronous speed.

2. Connect the synchroscope to the generator terminals and the grid terminals.

3. Adjust the generator voltage to match the grid voltage.

4. Observe the synchroscope display, which will show a rotating pointer or a moving pattern
indicating the phase difference.

5. Slowly increase the generator speed while observing the synchroscope display.

6. As the generator approaches synchronism, the synchroscope pointer or pattern will slow down
and eventually come to a stop.

7. At this point, the generator is in synchronism with the grid.

Advantages

- Provides a clear visual indication of phase difference

- Allows for precise synchronization

- Can be used for both single-phase and three-phase generators

Applications

- Power generation systems

- Industrial power distribution

- Emergency power supply systems

Module 1

Q.1) With a neat diagram explain the types of transformer

Core-Type Transformer

A core-type transformer is a type of transformer where the magnetic core is constructed in

such a way that the primary and secondary windings are wound around the same magnetic
core. This design is one of the most common configurations used in transformers, especially
for medium- and large-sized transformers.

Shell-Type Transformer

A shell-type transformer is one of the common types of transformers, where the magnetic
core surrounds both the primary and secondary windings. This design offers some advantages
in terms of insulation, mechanical strength, and efficiency, especially for transformers used in
specific applications like high-voltage and high-power settings.

\
Module 2

Q.1) what is the need of parallel operation the conditions to be satisfied for color
operation of two, 1 phase Transformers

Need for Parallel Operation

Parallel operation of transformers is necessary for:

1. Increased Load Handling: By connecting transformers in parallel, the total load handling
capacity can be increased.

2. Improved Reliability: If one transformer fails, the other can continue to supply the load,
reducing the risk of power outages.

3. Flexibility: Parallel operation allows for easier maintenance and repair, as one transformer
can be taken offline while the other continues to operate.

4. Economic Benefits: Parallel operation can reduce energy losses and improve overall
efficiency.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of 2 Single-Phase Transformers

To operate two single-phase transformers in parallel, the following conditions must be

satisfied:

1. Voltage Ratio: The voltage ratios of the two transformers must be identical.

2. Percentage Impedance: The percentage impedances of the two transformers must be

identical.

3. Phase Sequence: The phase sequences of the two transformers must be the same.

4. Voltage Magnitude: The voltage magnitudes of the two transformers must be identical.

5. Frequency: The frequencies of the two transformers must be identical.

By satisfying these conditions, two single-phase transformers can be operated in parallel,

providing increased load handling capacity, improved reliability, and economic benefits.
Q1 3 phase transformer constructional detail explanation

A three-phase transformer is constructed by essentially combining three

single-phase transformers onto a single core, with each phase having its
own primary and secondary winding on a dedicated leg of the core,
allowing for efficient use of space and material while transforming three-
phase power; the windings can be connected in different configurations like
delta or wye depending on the application needs, with the primary and
secondary windings on each leg being electrically isolated but magnetically
linked through the shared core.
MODULE 3

Q1) Write a note on harmonics and methods to minimize it

Harmonics in Electrical Systems

Harmonics are unwanted frequency components in a waveform that are integer multiples of
the fundamental frequency (which is the main frequency of the system). In a power system,
the fundamental frequency is usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz, and harmonics are frequencies like 100
Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz, and so on, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency.

These harmonics are typically caused by non-linear loads that draw current in pulses rather
than in a smooth, sinusoidal manner. Examples of non-linear loads include rectifiers, variable
speed drives, computers, fluorescent lighting, and other electronic devices.

Methods to Minimize Harmonics

1. Using Harmonic Filters:

o Passive Filters:
o Active Filters:
2. Using Phase-Shifting Transformers:
o Delta-Wye (Δ-Y) Transformer Connections:
o Interphase Transformers
3. Limiting the Use of Non-Linear Loads:
o Minimizing Harmonic-Generating Equipment:
o Proper Sizing of Loads:
4. Using Power Factor Correction (PFC):
o Capacitor Banks and Inductive Reactors
5. Installing Isolated Grounding Systems:
o Separate Grounding for Sensitive Equipment:
6. Designing with Low Harmonic Emission Equipment:
o Using Low Harmonic Drives
o UPS Systems with Harmonic Mitigation
7. Increasing the Number of Phases:
o Using 12-Pulse or 18-Pulse Rectifiers