Lab Report

Name of the experiments:

1. Determination of mechanical equivalent of heat.
2. Determination of specific resistance of a wire using meter bridge.
3. Determination of unknown resistance using post office box.

4. Conversion of alternating current to direct current using full wave rectifier of

diode.

5. Verification of the function of gate circuit (AND, OR, NOR) using integrated

circuit.
Name of the experiments: Determination of
mechanical equivalent of heat.
Theory: The amount of work done in order to produce one unit of
heat is called mechanical equivalent of heat.
If the potential difference between the ends of a conductor is V volt and
I ampere current flows through it for t seconds the work done by the
spent energy, W=VIt J……………… (1)
If the work completely converts into heat energy and produces H calorie
of heat, according to law of energy, W=JH J………….. (2)
Here, J= mechanical equivalent of heat.
From equation (1) and (2) we get,
JH=VIt
𝑉𝐼𝑡
or, J= 𝐽 𝑐𝑎𝑙 −1 ………….. (3)
𝐻

If the conducting wire or resistance coil is fully immersed in the liquid

of the Joule’s calorimeter and the total heat H produced due to current
flow we get,
𝐻 = (𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚′𝑠′)(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) ………… (4)
Here, m = mass of liquid used
s = specific heat of liquid used
m′= mass of the calorimeter
s′ = specific heat of the calorimeter
From equation (3) and (4) we get,
𝑉𝐼𝑡
Mechanical equivalent of heat, 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑐𝑎𝑙−1
(𝑚𝑠+𝑚′𝑠′)(𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

Circuit:
 Apparatus: Joule’s calorimeter, voltmeter, ammeter,
thermometer, rheostat, battery, liquid with known specific heat etc.

Table 1: Determination of H
Final Produced heat A
Mass of calorimeter 𝑚1 gm

temperature H=absorbed heat= v.

Voltmeter reading V(volt)
Ammeter reading I Amp

Mass of liquid, 𝑚2 gm

of (𝑚1 𝑆1 + 𝑚2 𝑆2 ) H
Specific Specific Initial calorimeter (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) c
No. of obs.

heat of the heat of temperature and liquid cal al

material of liquid of
calorimeter 𝑆2 cal/g/℃ calorimeter 𝜃2 ℃
𝑆1 cal/g/℃ and liquid

𝜃1 ℃

2
3

Calculation:
Flow of current i.e. ammeter reading, I=….. A
Potential difference between the two sides of resistance R, i.e. voltmeter
reading, V=……… volt
Time of flow of current, t= …………….. sec.
Produced heat, H=……………………….. cal
𝑊 𝑉𝑖𝑡
J= = = ………………………… J/cal
𝐻 𝐻
Result: Mechanical equivalent of heat, J= ……………….. J/cal

Precaution and Discussion:

1. The calorimeter is placed inside a heat insulator.
2. It was observed that the bulb of the thermometer was fully
immersed in the liquid.
3. Due to temperature, the resistance of the coil may change So,
average current flow and the average potential difference were
measured.
4. The connecting wire and the point of connecting wire rubbed with
sand paper.

-------------------------------------×-----------------------------
 Name of the experiments: Determination of specific
resistance of a wire using meter bridge.
Theory: The resistance of a one unit length wire having one unit
cross-sectional area at a definite temperature is called specific
resistance of the component of that wire at that temperature.
If the length, radius and resistance at a specific temperature of wire
are L, r and X respectively, the specific resistance of the wire,
𝑋𝐴
𝜌= ; where, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐿

𝑋𝜋𝑟 2
or, 𝜌 = Ω𝑚 ………… (1)
𝐿

In the arrangement shown in figure, if known resistance R is connected

to the left gap AD and unknown resistance X is connected to the right
gap DC and for point B, if the distance of null point AB= 𝑙 and
BC=100 − 𝑙 , then by the principle of Wheatdtone’s bridge, we get,
 𝑅 𝑙𝜎 𝑙
= =
𝑋 (100 − 𝑙)𝜎 100 − 𝑙
100−𝑙
or, 𝑋 = 𝑅 Ω
𝑙

where 𝜎 = resistance of the wire of the bridge in 1𝑐𝑚

Apparatus: A meter bridge, cell or battery, a resistance box,

unknown resistance, connecting wire, screw gauge, sand paper etc.

1)Table 1: Determination of resistance.

Position of No. of Known Distance of Unknown Average
resistance obs. resistance null point resistance X
X RΩ l cm X=
𝑙
× Ω
100−𝑙
𝑅Ω

1 2
Left gap
2 4

3 6
Unknown
resistance
Right gap 100−𝑙
P= ×
𝑙
𝑄Ω

1 2

2 4

3 6
 2)Length of the wire, L=…………….cm
3)Determination of least count of screw gauge:
Pitch, S=……………mm
Total number of divisions of circular scale, n=…………
𝑠
Least count, LC= =………………mm
𝑛

Table 2: Determination of radius.

No Linea No. of Leas Circul Total Instrum Correcte Averag avera
. of r divisio t ar observed ental d e ge
obs scale ns of cou scale radius error Diameter diamet radius
′
. readin circula nt readin 𝑑 ±e d= 𝑑 ′ − er r=
𝑑
2
g r scale LC g =𝐿+𝐹 mm (±e) d
L C mm F=C× Mm mm mm
mm LC
mm
1

3
Calculations: Resistance of the wire, X=…………………. Ω
Length of the wire, L=………………cm=………………m
Radius of the wire, r=………..….…mm=…….……..m
𝑋𝜋𝑟 2
And specific resistance, ρ = 𝛺𝑚 =……………
𝐿

Result: Specific resistance of the wire is, ρ=…………………….

Precaution and Discussion:
1. The ends of connecting wires and screws are rubbed well with
sand paper.
2. All connections are made tight.
3. Plug of the resistance box put tightly.
4. All readings should be taken carefully.

Name of the experiments: Determination of unknown

resistance using post office box.

Theory: Post office box is a practical use of the Whetstone’s bridge

principal. Using it the unknown resistance can be determined.
This apparatus contains three sides AB, BC, AD. If P and Q are the
known resistance in the ratio arms and R that in the third arm, then from
the Whetstone’s bridge principal on which of the post office box is
based, the unknown resistance S is determined from the following
relation :
 𝑃 𝑅 𝑅𝑄
= or S=
𝑄 𝑆 𝑃

Circuits:

Figure 1: Determination of resistance by P.O. box

Table 1: Determination of unknown resistance.
Resistance in Resistance in Deflections Inference Unknown Average
the ratio arm the third arm resistance resistance
𝑅𝑄
PΩ QΩ R ohm S= S
𝑃
0
∝
10 10

100 10

1000 10
Result: Unknown resistance S=……………………… ohm
Precaution and Discussion:
1. The ends of connecting wires and screws are rubbed well with
sand paper.
2. All connections are made tight.
3. Plug of the resistance box put tightly.
4. All readings should be taken carefully.
5. Before determining null point the opposite deflection is
observed.

Name of the experiment: Conversion of alternating current to

direct current using full wave rectifier of diode.

Theory: When one or more diodes convert A.C voltage into pulsating
D.C voltage, the circuit is called rectifier and the process is known as
rectification.
The property of semiconductor diode allows current to flow through the
diode when it is forward biased and prevents the flow of current when
the diode is reversed biased. This property of the diode is the base to
converting an alternating waveform, (sinusoidal) into a unidirectional
(D.C.) waveform.
Circuits:

Table 1:
No. of obs. Input voltage Load Output Output
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 resistance voltage current
𝑅𝐿 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐴𝑚𝑝
1 15 1000 2 4
2 15 1000 4 8
3 15 1000 6 12
4 15 1000 8 16
5 15 1000 10 20
6 15 1000 12 24

Calculations: if we draw a graph putting 𝐼𝑑𝑐 and 𝑉𝑑𝑐 a straight line

through origin point will be formed.

Graph: Taking 𝑉𝑑𝑐 along x-axis and 𝐼𝑑𝑐 along y-axis a straight line
through origin point is formed.

Result:
Precaution and Discussion:
1. A step-down transformer needs to use in input.
2. The combination of diodes have to be correct.
3. Graph shows the output and input of the signal.
4. AC current has to apply in input.

Name of the experiment: Verification of the function of gate

circuit (AND, OR, NOR) using integrated circuit.

Theory: A digital circuit having one or more input signal but only one
output signal is called gate. These circuits are designed to process digital
signals and there are a number of standard unit “Logic gates” are
available. There are 7 (seven) logic gates viz. AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gate. When the input combination of a logic
gate is listed gradually the output combinations can also be listed. This
combination of input and output is called truth table.
AND gate: An AND gate gives an output only when all the inputs are
high. If one of the inputs is low, the output is low. When all the inputs
are low, the output is also low.

OR gate: An OR gate gives an output high if any of the inputs is high. If

the inputs are 0 and 1 then the output is 1. If all the inputs are low then
the output is low.
NOT gate: A NOT gate works like taking one input and giving the
output which is opposite to the input, i.e. Ā. It is also known as inverter.
We can only give input level high or low. Thus if the input of a NOT
gate have input level low, then we have the output high and vice-versa.

Calculation:
AND gate truth table:
Output
inputs
A B C= (A.B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR gate truth table:

Voltage Inputs Output Voltage LED
connection output condition
A B A B C= (A+B)
0V 0V 0 0 0 0V off
0V 5V 0 1 1 5V on
 5V 0V 1 0 1 5V on
5V 5V 1 1 1 5V on

NOT gate truth table:

Inputs Output
A B
0 1
1 0

Result:

Discussion and precautions:

1. IC number of gates have to check carefully.
2. All the connections have to be tight.
3. Maximum 5V will supply as input.