Infinite Intelligence GELER - Geodesy Module

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GEODESY
Geodesy – that branch of applied mathematics which determines by observation and measurement the exact
position of points and figures and areas of large portions of the earth’s surface, the shape and size of
the earth, and the variations of terrestial gravity (Webster)

Geometric Geodesy – deals with mathematically defined surfaces (ellipsoid, coordinate systems, etc.) which
best approximate the shape of the earth or parts thereof

Physical Geodesy – deals with the earth’s observable geophysical properties as applied in geodesy

Geodetic Surveying – surveying of great areas that gives allowance for the effect of the earth’s curvature

Geodetic Astronomy – determination of geographic positions and directions between neighboring stations
(azimuths) from measurements on natural celestial bodies

Satellite (Cosmic) Geodesy – determination of geographic positions from measurements on artificial satellites

Some Topics under Geodesy Tentative Schedule of Lectures

Geometric Geodesy Day 1 Strength of Figure

❑ Spherical Excess Simple Adjustment of a Quadrilateral
❑ Ellipsoid Parameters Triangulation Problems
❑ Geographic Coordinate Systems
❑ Spherical Coordinates Day 2 Resection
❑ Convergency Celestial Sphere
Physical Geodesy
 Gravity, Potential, Isostacy Day 3 Observation of Time
 Equipotential Surfaces, Geoid Azimuth Determination
Geodetic Surveying Time Computation
❑ Triangulation
 Trilateration, Traverse, Leveling Day 4 Latitude Determination
❑ Strength of Figure Spherical Excess
❑ Simple Adjustment of a Quadrilateral Ellipsoid Parameters
❑ Resection
❑ Intervisibility of Stations Day 5 Geographic Coordinate Systems
❑ Adjustment of Level Works Spherical Coordinates
❑ Least Squares Adjustment
 Gravity Measurements Day 6 Intervisibility of Stations
Geodetic Astronomy Least Squares Adjustment
❑ Celestial Sphere
❑ Azimuth Determination Day 7 Adjustment of Level Works
❑ Time Computation
❑ Latitude Determination Day 8 Convergency
Satellite Geodesy Other Formulas
 GPS

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STRENGTH OF FIGURE

STRENGTH OF FIGURE (R)

- a measure of the reliability of a triangulation network, or the accuracy of the results of triangulation computations
for that network. Stronger figures have lower R.
- used in planning triangulation projects, to compare networks and choose the best route.

(D-C)
R=  (A2 +  A B+  B2)
D

R = Relative strength of figure.

D = Number of directions observed (forward and back) on lines excluding the known side.
C = Number of Geometric conditions to be satisfied.
 = Tabular difference of 1” expressed in units of 6th decimal place.
 (A2 +  A B+  B2) = Sum of values for a particular chain of triangles through which the computation is carried
from the known line to the required line.

STRENGTH OF FIGURE FACTOR “F”

D-C
F=
D

GEOMETRIC CONDITION “C”

C = C A + Cs
CA = number of angle condition equations = n’ – s’ + 1
n’ = Number of lines observed in both directions including the known side.
s’ = Number of stations Occupied.
Cs = number of side condition equations = n – 2s + 3
n = Total number of lines
s = total number of stations
Therefore, C = (n’ – s’ + 1) + (n – 2s+3)

Note that Angle and Side Condition Equations are simply the number of redundant angular and line observations.

Problems

Find the strength of figure factor of the figures if all stations are occupied except station for Station F.

1. 2.
AD = 13
n’ = 6
s’ = 5
n = 9
s = 6

C = (n’ – s’ + 1) + (n – 2s+3)
C = (6 – 5 + 1) + (9 – 2(6) + 3)
C=2

F = (D-C)/D
F = (13 – 2)/13 = 11/13
F = 0.85

3. Find the strength of figure of quadrilateral ABCD for the computation of side CD from known side AB if all
stations are occupied and all lines are observed in both directions. Use BC as the common side.

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SIMPLE ADJUSTMENT OF A QUADRILATERAL

For a given braced quadrilateral,

Problem

1. By simple adjustment, compute the adjusted values of the angles in quadrilateral ABCD whose angles are as
follows:

CAD = 45o 31’ CAB = 42o 12’

ABD = 41o 55’ CBD = 62o 42’
ACB = 33o 14’ ACD = 28o 06’
BDC = 56o 01’ ADB = 50o 23’
A B

D C

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Second
Angle Observed Value First Adjustment
Adjustment
BAC 42o 12’ 42o 11’ 30” 42o 11’ 30”
ABD 41o 55’ 41o 54’ 30” 41o 54’ 30”
CBD 62o 42’ 62o 41’ 30” 62o 41’ 00”
ACB 33o 14’ 33o 13’ 30” 33o 13’ 00”
ACD 28o 06’ 28o 05’ 30” 28o 05’ 30”
BDC 56o 01’ 56o 00’ 30” 56o 00’ 30”
ADB 50o 23’ 50o 22’ 30” 50o 23’ 00”
CAD 45o 31’ 45o 30’ 30” 45o 31’ 00”
Total 360 o 04’ 360o 00’ 00” 360o – 00’ – 00”

2. Adjust the given braced quadrilateral using the method of simple adjustment.

TRIANGULATION PROBLEMS

CASE I : angles adjacent to the check base are unknown CASE II : angles adjacent to the base are
unknown

Problem

Determine the length of the check base if the length of the baseline is 250 meters.
a. if line AB is the baseline and line CD is the checkbase.
b. If line CD is the baseline and line AB is the checkbase.

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RESECTION

A, B and C are reference stations whose distance and angular distance are known.  and  are angular values
observed at station O.

Formula for determining  and :

Let R =  + 
b sin 
cot  = + cot R
a sin  sin R

NOTE:
b is the adjacent side to the unknown angle .
 is the observed angle opposite to angle .

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CELESTIAL SPHERE

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SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

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NCP zenith
distance

equator

horizon D
horizon
H

AUTUMNAL EQUINOX - the intersection of the ecliptic and of the equator.

- It occurs every 21st of September.
ALMUCANTAR - rather known as parallels of altitude
- intersection of the sphere and of a plane parallel to the horizon
ALTITUDE - the angular distance of the body from the horizon as measured along the
vertical
circle.
- complement of zenith distance
CELESTIAL POLE - the apparent axis of rotation of the sun. It is the line through the sphere’s
center
perpendicular to the plane of the eciptic.
DECLINATION - the angular distance, north or south of the equator, measured along the
hour
circle from the equator to the body.
- complement of polar distance.
ECLIPTIC - the apparent annual path of the sun with the earth as its center.
EQUATOR - a great circle perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
EQUINOCTIAL COLURE - a great circle through the celestial poles and the vernal and autumnal
equinox.
EQUINOX - intersection of the ecliptic and the equator.
- a period when daytime is as long as nighttime.
GREAT CIRCLE - the intersection of a sphere and of a plane passing through the center of
the sphere.
HORIZON - the horizontal plane of the observer.
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HOUR ANGLE - the angle between any arbitrary hour circle and a reference hour circle
such as the meridian or equinoctial colure.
HOUR CIRCLE - great circle having the celestial poles as its elements.
LOWER CULMINATION - the instant when the body is at the lower portion of the meridian.
PARALLELS OF DECLINATION- intersection of the sphere and of a plane parallel to the equator.
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE - small circles on earth’s surface, parallel to the terrestrial equator that are
used to fix the location of points on earth.
POLAR DISTANCE - the angular distance between the pole and the celestial body measured
along the hour circle through the body.
PRECESSION - the slight shifting of the earth’s body.
RIGHT ASCENSION - an hour angle relation to the vernal equinox measured eastwardly along
the equator from the vernal equinox to the hour circle passing through
the body.
SUMMER SOLSTICE - a period that occurs every 21st of June when the sun is above the
equator most of the day, thus nighttime is least at this time of the year.
UPPER CULMINATION - the instant when the body is at the upper portion of the meridian.

VERNAL EQUINOX - the intersection of the ecliptic and of the equator. It occurs every 21st of
March.
VERTICAL CIRCLE - a great circle containing the zenith and nadir.
WINTER SOLSTICE - a period that occurs every 21st of June when the sun is below the
equator most of the day, thus daytime is least at this time of the year.

OBSERVATION OF TIME

Apparent time → time given by the hour angle of the true sun.
Local Civil Time → time for the meridian of the observer.
Standard Time → time at a specific standard meridian.
Sidereal Time → time indicated by a star.
Equation of Time (e) → difference between apparent and local civil time

SOLAR/STELLAR OBSERVATION
AZIMUTH DETERMINATION

Stars, when observed, may be used to determine the azimuth of a line. Given the North Polar Distance of a body
from an almanac and the observed values of declination, horizontal angle and time, we can use any of the three
methods below to determine the azimuth of the body and consequently the line of interest of the observer.

First Method:
By the formula conventionally used.

cot ½ A = [sec S sec (S – P) sin (S – H) sin (S – L)]1/2

where :

H+P+L
S=
2

Note that Azimuth for afternoon observations should be 180o minus the computed A.

Second Method:
By an alternative formula.

sin D – sin L sin H

cos z =
Cos L cos H

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Third Method:
Derivation of the formula used in the second method via cosine law.

c
A
B

a b

For sides: cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A

For angles: cos A = - cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a

TIME COMPUTATION

Apart from azimuth, stellar observations are likewise used to determine the time “t” when the observations were
conducted. Same to azimuth determination, there are three methods we can use in computing for “t.”

First Method:
→conventionally used formula.
tan ½ t = [cos S sec (S –p) sin (S – H) csc (S – L)]1/2
where :

H+P+L
S=
2

Second Method:
→by an alternative formula.

sin H – sin L cos P

cos t =
Cos L sin P

Third Method:
→Derivation of the formula for the second method via cosine law.

ELONGATION

→ hour circle = great circle through P and star

→ vertical circle = great circle through Z and star.

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Z
z

360o - t
vertical P
circle s
p
path of
star

Hour 
equator circle
H
N
z

horizon

Azimuth z can be determined through the formula:

z = P sec L = P sec H

Another perspective of the figure above is this…

path of star

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When the star observed is not at its elongation, we can still compute for the angle z by using the formula…

Sin D – sin H sin L

cos z =
cos h cos L

If the data on angle t is available instead of the altitude H, use the formula

sin t
tan z
tan D cos  - sin 
=
cos t

CULMINATION

→upper culmination – highest pt. of its apparent path

→lower culmination – lowest pt. of its apparent path
z

NCP equator

L L= H+P
o
180 -
P D
H
horizon O

NCP equator

L L=H–P
D
P

H
horizon O

`
z

NCP equator
L = 90o – H + D
L
D

H
horizon O

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equator
NCP

L
L = 90o – D – H
D

H
horizon O

SPHERICAL EXCESS

If
e = spherical excess in radians
a = area of the spherical triangle
→ a = ½ bc sin 
we’ll have

bc sin e”
bc sin 
 o =
E=
r sin 1” 2
2 R2
R2

Wherein sin 1” is a conversion factor. First formula will give spherical excess “e” in radians whereas when divided
by sin 1” will give the value of “e” in seconds.

Note that spherical excess “e” is different from “total spherical excess” and “random excess.”

total spherical excess =  +  +  - 180o

random excess = total spherical excess – e

FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF THE ELLIPSOID


b
F F2
1 X
a

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a-b
1. Flattening (f) =
a
2. 1st eccentricity (e) = sin
a2 - b2
(e) 2 =
a2
3. 2nd eccentricity (e’) = tan
a2 - b2
(e’) 2 =
b2
b
4. angular eccentricity () = cos -1
a
a (1 – e2)
5.meridional radius (M) =
(1 – e2 sin2 )3/2
a
6.radius of curvature of the prime vertical (N) =
(1 – e2 sin2 )1/2

where  = geodetic latitude

Meridional Section - plane passing through the given point and the two celestial poles.
Prime Vertical Section - section through the point and perpendicular to the meridional section at the point.

The Philippines is using Clarke’s Spheroid of 1866 as its model, thus, unless otherwise stated, assume the
values:
a = 6,378,206.4 m
b = 6,356,583.8 m
f = 1/294.98

GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEMS

RELATIONSHIP OF ,  AND 

tan  = (1-e2) 1/2 tan  = (1 – e2) tan 

OR

(1 - e2) 0 tan  = (1 - e2) 1/2 tan  = (1 – e2) tan 

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SPHERICAL COORDINATES

X’ = a cos 
X = X’ cos 
Y = X’ sin 
Z = b sin 

a2 cos  a cos 
= N cos
X= (a2cos2 + b2sin2 = (1 - e2

) 1/2 sin2)1/2

a(1 – e2)sin
b2 sin2
Z  = N (1 – e2)sin
=
= (a2cos2 + (1 - 
b2sin2)1/2 e2sin2)1/2

METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES

The fundamental principle of the method of least squares may be stated as follows:
”In observations of equal precision the most probable values of the observed quantities are those that render the
sum of the squares of the residual errors a minimum.”

Definitions:
Observation Equation: Relation between the observed quantity and its numerical values
Normal Equation: Equation which is obtained by multiplying each equation by the coefficient of the unknown
whose normal equation is to be found by adding the equations thus formed. The number of normal
equations is always the same as the number of unknowns.
Conditioned Equation: Equation which expresses the relation existing between the several dependent
quantities.

I. Most Probable values of directly observed quantities:

The most probable value of directly observed quantity is its arithmetic mean.

II. Most probable values of directly observed quantities of different weights.

→Let X1, X 2, X3, …,Xn be the observed values of a quantity and 1, 2, 3, …, n be their respective
weight. Let X be the most probable value of the quantity.

X11 + X 2 2 + X3 3 + …+
X= Xnn
1 + 2 + 3 + …+ n

Solve:

Determine the most probable value of the angle  given the following data:

Observation set Mean of Observed Value No. of observations

1 36 27’ 35” 6
2 36 27’ 30” 4
3 36 27’ 33 6
4 36 27’ 37” 5

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III. Most probable value of indirectly observed quantities.
A B
A

A + B = C, where in, C is the indirectly observed quantity of A and B

If A = X, B = Y and C = Z = A + B

A =X
+ (A + B) = Z
2A + B = X + Z →Eq’n I = Normal equation of A

B =Y
+ (A + B) = Z
A + 2B = Y + Z →Eq’n II = Normal equation of B

Given two equations and two unknowns, A and B, we can compute for the most probable values of A
and B

Example 1 (unequal weights):

Find the most probable values of the angles A and B from the following observation equations at a station X

A = 49 44’ 35.5”

B = 52 35’ 48.4”
A + B = 102 20’ 28.0”

Paano kung unequal weights?

To form the normal equations, multiply each observation equation by the product of the algebraic coefficient of
that unknown quantity in the equation and the weight of that observation, and add the equations thus formed.

AX = 1; Wt. = D
BX = 2; Wt. = E
CX = 3; Wt. = F

Formulation of Normal equation:

AD (AX) = AD 1
+ BE (BX) = BE 2
+ CF (CX) = CF 3
X(A2D + B2E + C2F) = AD 1 + BE 2 + CF 3 → Normal Equation of X

Example 2:
Find the most probable value of the angle A from the following equations:

2A = 30 30’ 31.0” wt. 1

3A = 45 45’ 48.0” wt. 2
4A = 61 01’ 00.0” wt. 3

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IV. Conditioned quantities: When observations are a combination of observation equations and conditioned
equations, the most probable values may be obtained by:

A. By avoiding the conditioned equations and forming the normal equations and forming the
normal equations of the unknowns. Suitable for simple problems.

Normal equation method: Only observation equations are written in terms of the independent quantities
and no conditioned equation is included. The most probable values of the unknowns are then found by
solving the normal equations of unknown quantities. (parang sa example 1)

Example 3: The following observations refer to the values of the angles A, B and C at a triangulation
station.
A = 20 18’ 26.4”
B = 36 28’ 14.8”
C = 56 46’ 44.5”

Fulfilling the condition that A + B = C, find the most probable values of A, B and C.

Method of differences: If the normal equations of unknowns involve large numbers, it becomes laborious
to solve them. In such cases, it is advisable to solve normal equations by the method of differences.

The method is based on the principle that most probable values of the unknown quantities are assumed
and the required corrections obtained (note that in example 4, the obtained values are the direct adjusted
values of the unknown). The procedure for the solution of the problem is as under:

Let k1, k2, k3, …, kn be the residual errors.

(i) Express the discrepancy between the observed results and those given by the assumed value by
subtracting the assumed value from the observed ones.
(ii) Form the normal equations in terms of k1, k2, k3, …, kn and solve them to get the values of k 1, k2,
k3, …, kn.
(iii) Add the values of the residuals algebraically to the observed quantities to obtain their most
probable values.

Example 4 (method of differences): The following observations of three angles A, B and c were taken at a
triangulation station.

A = 72 12’ 42.3” wt. 3

B = 53 18’ 53.6” wt. 4
C = 110 24’ 48.5” wt. 2
A + B = 125 31’ 36.8” wt. 2
B + C = 163 43’ 44.6” wt. 2
A + B + C = 235 56’ 26.2” wt. 1

Determine the most probable values of the angles A, B and C.

Clue: Normal Equation of k1 →6k1 + 3k2 + k3 = 3.6

Normal Equation of k2 →3k1 + 9k2 + 3k3 = 8.6
Normal Equation of k3 →k1 + 3k2 + 5k3 = 6.8
Check: (A + B), (B + C) and (A + B + C)

Example 5 (method of differences): Solve for the problem in example 3 by the method of differences

Example 6:
In order to determine the value of three horizontal angles ,  and  at a triangulation station, certain
observations were made. The table below gives the observations together with their respective weights.
Find the most probable values of ,  and .

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 = 30 12’ 24.1” wt. 1

 = 42 11’ 8.2” wt. 1
 +  = 72 23’ 31.5” wt. 2
 +  +  = 148 44’ 44.4” wt. 1
 +  = 118 32’ 29.6” wt. 2

a. by using the method of normal equation

b. by the method of differences

B. By avoiding the observation equations and finding the values of unknowns by the method
of correlates. Used for complicated problems and is similar to the procedure in solving
problems on “most probable values of indirectly observed quantities.”

→Independent multiple constants used for finding out the most probable values of unknowns of
conditioned equations, ate known as correlates.

→Suitability of the method. When the number of conditioned equations is more the method of
normal equations becomes tedious as well as laborious. To overcome this difficulty of solving
large number of simultaneous equations, the method of correlates is generally used

Steps involved in the method of correlates

1. Assume suitable corrections for each observed quantity e1, e2, e3, …,en.
2. Enter all the condition equations.
3. Add the equation of conditions as suggested by the theory of least squares.
4. Differentiate each conditioned equation and the equation and the equation of least
squares separately.
5. Multiply each differentiated equation of conditions by correlates -1, -2, 3,…,n and add
the result to the differentiated equation of the least squares.\
6. Obtain the coefficients of e1, e2, e3,…en and equate each to zero to get the values of
e1, e2, e3,…, en.
7. Substitute the values of e1, e2, e3, …, en, in the conditioned equations and solve the
simultaneous equations thus formed to obtain the values of correlates.
8. Knowing the values of correlates and the weights, the values of e1, e2, e3, …, en can be
calculated.

Illustration:
Let A, B, C and D be the measured angles of a quadrilateral. Their weights being 1, 2, 3 and 4
respectively.
Let E be the total residual error in the summation of the four angles i.e.,

A + B +C + D - 360 = E

If e1, e2, e3 and e4 are the required corrections for the observed angles, then the equation of condition is

e1+ e2 + e3 + e4 =E (eq’n I)

The least squares for this case is

e1 2 + e22 + e32 + e42 = a minimum (eq’n II)

Differentiating conditioned equations I and II

1e1 + 2e2 + 3e3 + 4e4 = 0 (eq’n III)

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and 1e1e1 + 2e2e2 + 3e3e3 + 4e4e4 = 0 (eq’n IV)

Multiplying equation III by a correlate -1, and adding to the equation IV, we get:

-11e1 + -12e2 + -13e3 + -14e4 = 0

+ 1e1e1 + 2e2e2 + 3e3e3 + 4e4e4 = 0
e1 (1e1 - 1) + e2(2e2 - 1) + e3(3e3 - 1) + e4(4e4 - 1) = 0 (eq’n V)

In equation V, e1, e2, e3 and e4 are definite and independent quantities and as such their coefficients
must vanish separately i.e.,

1e1 - 1 = 0
2e2 - 1 = 0
3e3 - 1 = 0
4e4 - 1 = 0
} (eq’n VI)

From equation VI, we get

1
e1 =
1

}
1
e2 =
2
(eq’n VII)
1
e3 =
3
1
e4 =
4

Substituting the values of the corrections e1, e2, e3 and e4 in equation 1 we get

1 1 1 1
=
 +  +  +  E
1 2 3 4
or
1 1 1 1

(  +  +  +  )=
1
1 2 3 4 E

or
E
1 (eq’n
Sum of the reciprocals of the
= VIII)
weights

Substituting the value of 1 from equation VIII in equation VII, we obtain the required corrections e1, e2, e3
and e4 to be applied to the observed angles.

Example 7:
The following observations refer to the values of the angles A, B and C at a triangulation station.

A = 20 18’ 20.4”

B = 36 28’ 14.8”
C = 56 46’ 44.5”

Fulfilling the condition that A + B = C, find the most probable values of A, B and C by the method of
correlates.

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Example 8:
Adjust the angles of a triangle ABC which has been reduced for spherical excess by the method of
correlates.

A = 87 35’ 11.1” wt. 2

B = 43 15’ 17.0” wt. 1
C = 49 09’ 34.0” wt. 3

Example 9:
Find the most probable value of the following angles closing the horizon at a station by the method of
correlates.
P = 45 23’ 37” wt. 1
Q = 75 37’ 15” wt. 2
R = 125 21’ 21” wt. 3
S = 113 37’ 59” wt. 3

Examples 10 to 14 – adjust in any method aforementioned above

Example 10:
Find the most probable values of the angles A, B and C of triangle ABC from the following observations:

A = 77 14’ 20” wt. 4

B = 49 40’ 35” wt. 3
C = 53 04’ 52” wt. 2

Example 11:
Find the most probable value of the line ABC given the following data:

AB = 44.60 m BC = 36.97 m AC = 81.64m

AB = 44.35 m BC = 36.44 m AC = 80.98 m
AB = 43.98 m BC = 36.38 m AC = 81.36 m
AB = 44.56 m AC = 81.35 m
AC = 81.76 m

Example 12:
In a quadrilateral, the following angles were observed.

CBD = 49 47’ 08” wt. 2

ADB = 63 19’ 35” wt. 1
CDA = 29 38’ 52” wt. 1
BCD = 37 14’ 12” wt. 1
ACB = 45 24’ 10” wt. 1
CAD = 67 43’ 04” wt. 2

Find the most probable values of the angles.

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Example 13:
Find the probable value of the following angles measured at station O.

AOB = 45 23’ 37”

BOC = 75 37’ 15”
COD = 125 21’ 21”
DOA = 113 37’ 59”

Example 14:
Find the probable value of the following angles measured at station O.

AOB = 45 23’ 37” wt. 1

BOC = 75 37’ 15” wt. 2
COD = 125 21’ 21” wt. 3
DOA = 113 37’ 59” wt. 3

V. Adjustment of Level Work

→ General laws of the probable errors and relative weights as applied to level work:
1. Under the same conditions of measurement, the probable error of levels is as the square
root of the length of the line.
2. Under the same conditions of measurement, the weight of the result due to any line of
levels varies inversely as the length of the line.

Various problems of adjustment of level work.

1. Duplicate Lines
→ BM’s are measured more than once along the same route
→ Most Probable value = arithmetic mean

Example 15:
Find the most probable value of the difference of elevation of two benchmarks A and B from the following
observed values.
Observed difference from A to B = 37.585 m
Observed difference from B to A = -37.567 m

2. Sectional Lines
→ 2 BM’s are connected by several level lines, only one BM is of known elevation
→ Determine the most probable value of the level lines connecting the two bench marks
then add the differences in elevation between successive section to determine the difference of elevation
of the benchmarks.

Example 16:
Find the most probable value of the difference between two bench marks A and F given the following
data:
Observed difference from A to B = 3.756 m, 3.750 m, 3.760 m
Observed difference from B to C = 4.957 m, 4.960 m, 4.953 m
Observed difference from C to D = 2.961 m, 2.978 m, 2.972 m
Observed difference from D to E = 5.285 m, 5.283 m, 5.279 m
Observed difference from E to F = 1.235 m, 1.228 m, 1.242 m

3. Multiple Lines
→ Two benchmarks connected by a set of two or more level lines – different routes
→ Most Probable value of the difference of elevation of the two bench marks is the weighted
arithmetic mean of the observed values.

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Example 17:
Determine the most probable value elevation of B given the elevation of A to be 14.956m and the
following data:
Route 1: AB = 4.967 m distance = 5.0 kms
Route 2: AB = 4.949 m distance = 4.5 kms
Route 3: AB = 4.972 m distance = 4.2 kms
Route 4: AB = 4.953 m distance = 4.8 kms

4. Closed circuits
→ Points which lie on a single line of benchmarks and which do not influence the general
adjustment of the line are called intermediate points. A level line which is run between
two known benchmarks or starting from and closing on the same benchmark is a closed
circuit
→ The total discrepancy between the terminal benchmarks may be distributed in direct
proportion to distances of the intermediate points from the starting benchmark.

Example 18:
A line of levels is run from benchmark A to benchmark F, connecting the points B, C, D and E. The
observed data is tabulated as under:
Section Distance (km) Observed diff. (m)
A to B 3.0 -1.375
B to C 2.5 +0.986
C to D 3.2 -2.351
D to E 2.8 +1.825
E to F 3.5 -0.556

Calculate the most probable values of the intermediate benchmarks if the elevations of A and F are
55.876 m and 54.290 m respectively.

Example 19:
A surveyor carried out leveling operations of a closed circuit ABCDA starting from A and found out that
B is 6.71 meters above A
C is 5.59 meters above B
D is 3.48 meters above C
D is 13.72 meters above A

The accuracy of all the four leveling operations is to be assumed equal. Determine the probable heights
of B, C and D above A by the method of correlates.

5. Level Networks
→ Network of level circuits formed by level lines interconnecting three or more BM’s
→ The most probable value between BM’s may be determined by the following methods

A. Method of correlates
B. Method of normal equations

→ The weight for the observed differences in elevation between two benchmarks is
assigned inversely proportional to the length of the line.

Example 20:
The following data pertains to a circuit of precise levels for four benchmarks.
Level line Observed difference Weight
A to B +3.885 2
B to C -2.028 2
C to A -1.715 1
A to D -1.712 2
D to C +3.515 1
Calculate the adjusted difference of elevation.
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CONVERGENCE OF MERIDIANS (CONVERGENCY)

DAG and EBG → two meridians

P → North Pole of the earth
F → center of the earth
DE → arc of the equator
AB → arc of parallel of latitude at latitude 
 → difference in longitude between the meridians (in radians)
 → angle of convergence

=  sin 

Where  and  are in radians.

In cases where A and B are of not the same latitude , the formula for the angle of convergency becomes:

= sin m

Where:

(A +  B)
m =
2

Grid azimuth = Astronomical azimuth  

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ORTHOMETRIC CORRECTION
The orthometric correction applied to account for this convergence of level surfaces at different elevations can be
calculated using the equation:

correction = - 0.005288 (sin 2) h ’ arc 1’

where:
 = latitude at starting point
h = mean sea level elevation at the starting point
 = change in latitude in minutes between the two points
→  is positive (+) in direction of increasing latitude or towards the pole, otherwise, siyempre
negative (-).

level surface at a
sea level given altitude
surface equator

REDUCTION TO SEA LEVEL

Distance measurements in triangulation networks extending over large areas are reduced to a common
sea-level datum. The theory behind the formula in the reduction is illustrated below.
Let B → distance measured from O’ to P’ at elevation “h” above sea level
R → radius of curvature for the earth’s surface at the section
B’ → distance from S to L at sea level

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B
P
’ O
h ’

B
’
S L

By ratio and proportion,

B’ R R
O
= R+ B’ = B R+ O
B r
h h
where in, b is the sea-level distance.

Note that the formula above was based on the assumption that the earth is a sphere. If we are to
consider that the earth is an ellipse, we have to use another formula for reducing distances to sea level.
(e2 ang ginagamit sa board exam)
For simple reduction, use
1 h
B’ = ( )
- R

For precise reduction, use

H
2 H
B’ = ( - )
R
2 R

OTHER FORMULAS

ISOMETRIC LATITUDE:
1 – e sin e/

isometric latitude L tan (45  2
[ ) ( ) ]
= n + 1 + e sin
2


CORRECTION TO GRAVITY
C = 3.086 x 10-4 h
→ h = height above datum in meters

CORRECTION OF AZIMUTH TO SEA LEVEL

C = 1.09 x 10-4 (h cos2  sin 2)
→  = azimuth of the line
→  = latitude of the place

REDUCTION OF ALTITUDE
C = -1.710 x 10-4 (h sin 2)
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→ h = height above datum in meters
→  = latitude of the place

GEODETIC DISTANCE
Grid Distance
Geodetic Distance
(scale factor) (m.s.l.
=
factor)

RADIUS OF A LINE OF AZIMUTH 

MN
R
M sin2 + N
=
cos2

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P
p t

z
a
Z
d
L

GHA 
LHA 0 

celestial equator

Three systems of time measurement

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1. Sidereal and Universal (solar) times - based on the diurnal rotation of the earth
2. Ephemeris time - defined by the orbital motion of the earth about the sun
3. Atomic time - based on the atomic oscillations produced by the quantum transition of an atom

→ Universal or sidereal time is determined from observations on stars, usually transits. They are equivalent forms of
time thus, one defines the other. The use of one versus the other is just a matter of convenience. It is utilized in areas of
- star positions determinations
- astronomic position determinations in geodesy and navigation
- determination of the variations in the rotation of the earth.
→ Ephemeris and atomic times are independent systems and are used mostly in observations and calculations which
are periodic or repetitive in nature where the uniformity of time intervals plays an important role, such as connection with the
observations of artificial satellites, in celestial mechanics, and for ephemeris purposes.

Sidereal Time System

→ directly related to the rotation of the earth; equal intervals of angular motion correspond to intervals of sidereal
time.
→ Numerically measured by the hour angle of the vernal equinox. The local hour angle of the true vernal equinox
is termed apparent sidereal time (AST). When the hour angle is referred to the Greenwich mean astronomic
meridian, it is called Greenwich apparent sidereal time (GAST). The local hour angle of the mean vernal
equinox is termed mean sidereal time (MST). When the hour angle is referred to the Greenwich mean
astronomic meridian, it is called Greenwich mean sidereal time (GMST)
→ Equation of the equinox = Eq. E = AST – MST = GAST – GMST
→ Reduced astronomic longitude  = MST – GMST = AST – GAST , with positive sign to the east

Universal (solar) Time

→ Solar epoch: the apparent (TRUE) and Mean Solar, Universal and Zonal Times; the equation of time
→ the epoch of the apparent of true solar time (TT) at any place is defined as TT = h S + 12h where hs denotes the
local hour angle of the true sun. The 12 h is added for convenience so that 0h TT should occur at night (at lower
transit), conforming with timekeeping.
→ Mean Solar Time (MT) is defined as MT = hM + 12h where hM is the local hour angle of the fictitious sun.
→ If the hour angles of the true and fictitious suns are referred to the Greenwich mean astronomic meridian, the
resulting times are termed Greenwich apparent (true) solar time (GTT) and universal time (UT) respectively.
Thus:

GTT = hGS + 12h

UT = hGM + 12h

Thus:

 = TT – GTT = MT – UT = hS – hGS = hM – hGM

→ The difference between the true and solar times at a given instant is termed the “equation of time”

Eq. T = TT – MT = GTT – UT = hS – hM = hGS – hGM

→ Since the fictitious sun is not actually observable, mean solar time in the navigational and surveyor practice is
ascertained by determining the true solar time and correcting it with the tabulated equation of time

MT = TT – Eq T

or

UT = GTT – Eq. T = TT -  - Eq. T

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1. Given the following data, compute for the standard time of Upper Culmination of Polaris on Jan. 15, 1996

Longitude of area = 121 30’ 00”

Latitude of area = 11 45’ 00”
From the table:
Local Mean Time of upper culmination, 120 on Jan. 11, 1996 = 19h 10m 00s
Variation per degree of longitude = + 0.659 s
Variation per day = -3m 54.7 s

MST
AST

GMAM GMST T
GAST Eq. E
M

NCP

Local
meridian

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HGS
hS
GMAM hGM S
hM

Eq. T
LMAM

M
UT
MT
GTT
TT

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SOLAR OBSERVATION:
Worst case: Given the raw data and the table.
1. Compute for the mean horizontal angle, vertical angle and time.
2. From the table, determine the correction for parallax and refraction, NPD,
Latitude of the place, variation per hour and equation of time (if needed).
3. Correct the vertical angle and the tabulated NPD.
4. Compute for the mean azimuth of the sun.
5. Compute for the mean azimuth of the mark (kung tinatanong)
6. do the same for the 2nd set or do the steps simultaneously for steps 1 and 2.
7. Compute for the relative error of the azimuth kung tinatanong
8. Compute for the mean time (computed, not the watch reading) for set I and II.
9. The computed time is Local Apparent Time and not the Local Standard Time.
Determine what is being asked for to know whether you are to use LAT or LST
in your solution.
10. Get the difference of the mean time computed and the mean of watch time
recorded to determine whether the watch used is too slow (late) or too fast
(advance).

Given the raw data and the data from the table is given.
Step no. 2 is not necessary
Given the raw data, data from the table and corrected NPD.
Step no. 2 and correction of NPD is not necessary
Given the Horizontal angle and corrected vertical angle…
Compute na agad kayo, deretso sa step 4.

Initial Horizontal Reading:000 00’ 24”

Horizont
Sta. Occupied: Sta. A
Sta. Observed: Sta. B
Location: Manila
Date: May 2, 2000
Longitude: 1210 25’ E
Magnetic bearing:

HORIZONTAL READING VERTICAL ANGLE TIME

D 3590 02’ 00” 530 33’ 48” 3:32:07
D 3580 59’ 47” 530 49’ 50” 3:32:32
SET I
R 1780 55’ 44” 3060 50’ 20” 3:33:06
R 1790 02’ 25” 3060 25’ 18” 3:33:30
R 1790 02’ 14” 3060 27’ 20” 3:34:03
R 1780 56’ 41” 3060 24’ 30” 3:34:23
SET II
D 3580 59’ 50” 530 34’ 04” 3:34:56
D 3590 02’ 22” 530 46’ 20” 3:35:13

FROM THE ALMANAC

EPHEMERIS OF THE SUN, 2000

NORTH POLAR DISTANCE Eq. AT 12 NN
DATE 8:00 AM HRLY VAR 2:00 PM HRLY VAR (m’s)
(sec) (sec)
1-May 74-53-50.4 -45.26 74-49-18.18 -45.1 (+02’55.68)
2-May 74-35-49.9 -44.63 74-31-22.21 -44.47 (+03’2.49)
3-May 74-18-4.6 -43.98 74-13-40.7 -43.82 (+03’8.75)
4-May 73-43-21.0 -43.33 73-56-14.9 -43.16 (+03’14.44)
5-May 73-43-21.0 -42.66 73-39-5.1 -43.49 (+06’19.59)

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TABLE III PROVINCIAL CAPITAL AND CITIES

PLACE LATITUDE (d) Reduction to Standard Time
Mamburao, Occidental Mindoro 13.2 -2
Mandaue City 10.3 -16
Manila City 14.6 -4

TABLE V
Correction of the Sun’s Apparent Altitude for Refraction and Parallax
Apparent Altitude (d-m) Mean Parallax and Refraction (m’s)
36-00 01’09
36-20 01’08
36-40 01’07
37-00 01’06

1. solve for the true azimuth of the sun.

2 what is the true azimuth of the line?
3 What is the probable error?
4 Based on the observation, what is the Standard Time at the moment of observation, is the observer’s watch advance
or late?

HORIZONTAL
ZENITH DIST ALTITUDE TIME
READING
D 3590 02’ 00” 53 33’ 48”
0
36 26’ 12” 3:32:07
D 3580 59’ 47” 530 49’ 50” 36 10’ 10” 3:32:32
SET I
R 3580 55’ 44” 530 09’ 40” 36 50’ 20” 3:33:06
R 3590 02’ 25” 530 34’ 42” 36 25’ 18” 3:33:30
R 3790 02’ 14” 530 32’ 40” 36 27’ 20” 3:34:03
SET R 3780 56’ 41” 530 35’ 30” 36 24’ 30” 3:34:23
II D 3580 59’ 50” 530 34’ 04” 36 25’ 56” 3:34:56
D 3590 02’ 22” 530 46’ 20” 36 13’ 40” 3:35:13

2 cases of vertical angle

1. 0 is at horizon

R
D
D
0 0

direct reverse

altitude =  altitude = 180 -  =

zenith dist = 90 - altitude = 90 -  zenith dist = 90 - altitude =  - 90

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2. 0 is at zenith

0 0
D
D

R

direct reverse

altitude = 90 -  altitude =  - 270

zenith dist = 90 - altitude =  zenith dist = 90 - altitude = 360 - 

SET I
Mean horizontal angle:
Mean Vertical Angle:
Mean Time:
NPD:
Correction for NPD:
Corrected NPD:
Vertical Angle:
Correction for the vertical angle:
Corrected vertical angle:
Meron nang corrected vertical angle at corrected NPD, ano pa ba kelangan?
Azimuth of the sun (consider the time of the day and the method used, kung iyung conventional o iyung cosine law):
Azimuth of the mark: 36 26’52.99”

SET II
Mean horizontal angle:
Mean Vertical Angle:
Mean Time:
NPD:
Correction for NPD:
Corrected NPD:
Vertical Angle:
Correction for the vertical angle:
Corrected vertical angle:
Meron nang corrected vertical angle at corrected NPD, ano pa ba kelangan?
Azimuth of the sun :
Azimuth of the mark:

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SOLAR OBSERVATION:
Given the raw data and the table.
11. Compute for the mean horizontal angle, vertical angle and time.
12. From the table, determine the correction for parallax and refraction, NPD,
Latitude of the place, variation per hour and equation of time (if needed).
13. Correct the vertical angle and the tabulated NPD.
14. Compute for the mean azimuth of the sun.
15. Compute for the mean azimuth of the mark (kung tinatanong)
16. do the same for the 2nd set or do the steps simultaneously for steps 1 and 2.
17. Compute for the relative error of the azimuth kung tinatanong
18. Compute for the mean time (computed, not the watch reading) for set I and II.
19. The computed time is Local Apparent Time and not the Local Standard Time.
Determine what is being asked for to know whether you are to use LAT or LST in your solution.
20. Get the difference of the Standard time (computed hour angle) and the mean of
watch time recorded to determine whether the watch used is too slow (late) or too fast (advance).

EXAMPLE:

Sta. Occupied: Sta. A

Sta. Observed: Sta. B
Location: Manila
Date: May 2, 2000
Longitude: 1210 25’ E

HORIZONTAL READING VERTICAL ANGLE TIME

D 3590 02’ 00” 530 33’ 48” 3:32:07
D 3580 59’ 47” 530 49’ 50” 3:32:32
SET I
R 1780 55’ 44” 3060 50’ 20” 3:33:06
R 1790 02’ 25” 3060 25’ 18” 3:33:30
R 1790 02’ 14” 3060 27’ 20” 3:34:03
R 1780 56’ 41” 3060 24’ 30” 3:34:23
SET II
D 3580 59’ 50” 530 34’ 04” 3:34:56
D 3590 02’ 22” 530 46’ 20” 3:35:13

FROM THE ALMANAC

EPHEMERIS OF THE SUN, 2000
NORTH POLAR DISTANCE Eq. AT 12 NN
DATE 8:00 AM HRLY VAR 2:00 PM HRLY VAR (m’s)
(sec) (sec)
1-May 74-53-50.4 -45.26 74-49-18.18 -45.1 (+02’55.68)
2-May 74-35-49.9 -44.63 74-31-22.1 -44.47 (+03’2.49)
3-May 74-18-4.6 -43.98 74-13-40.7 -43.82 (+03’8.75)
4-May 73-43-21.0 -43.33 73-56-14.9 -43.16 (+03’14.44)
5-May 73-43-21.0 -42.66 73-39-5.1 -43.49 (+06’19.59)

TABLE III PROVINCIAL CAPITAL AND CITIES

PLACE LATITUDE (d) Reduction to Standard Time
Mamburao, Occidental Mindoro 13.2 -2
Mandaue City 10.3 -16
Manila City 14.6 -4

TABLE V
Correction of the Sun’s Apparent Altitude for Refraction and Parallax
Apparent Altitude (d-m) Mean Parallax and Refraction (m’s)
36-00 01’09
36-20 01’08
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36-40 01’07
37-00 01’06
1. solve for the true azimuth of the sun.
2 what is the true azimuth of the line?
3 What is the probable error?
4 Based on the observation, what is the Standard Time at the moment of observation, is the observer’s watch advance
or late?

Solution
HORIZONTAL
ZENITH DIST ALTITUDE TIME
READING
D 3590 02’ 00” 53 33’ 48”
0
36 26’ 12” 3:32:07
D 3580 59’ 47” 530 49’ 50” 36 10’ 10” 3:32:32
SET I
R 3580 55’ 44” 530 09’ 40” 36 50’ 20” 3:33:06
R 3590 02’ 25” 530 34’ 42” 36 25’ 18” 3:33:30
R 3590 02’ 14” 530 32’ 40” 36 27’ 20” 3:34:03
SET R 3580 56’ 41” 530 35’ 30” 36 24’ 30” 3:34:23
II D 3580 59’ 50” 530 34’ 04” 36 25’ 56” 3:34:56
D 3590 02’ 22” 530 46’ 20” 36 13’ 40” 3:35:13

2 cases of vertical angle

1. 0 is at horizon

R
D
D
0 0

direct reverse

altitude =  altitude = 180 -  =

zenith dist = 90 - altitude = 90 -  zenith dist = 90 - altitude =  - 90

2. 0 is at zenith

0 0
D
D

R

direct reverse

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altitude = 90 -  altitude =  - 270
zenith dist = 90 - altitude =  zenith dist = 90 - altitude = 360 - 

SOLUTION FOR THE AZIMUTH OF THE SUN

SET I
Mean horizontal angle: 358 59’59”
Mean Vertical Angle (a): 36 28’ 00”
Mean Time: 3:32:48.75
NPD: 74 31’ 22.1”
Correction for NPD: (3:32:48.75 – 2:00:00)*( -44.47) = 1’ 8.79”
Corrected NPD: 74 30’13.31”
Vertical Angle: 36 28’ 00”
Correction for the vertical angle: 1’7.6” (paano nakuha i2?)
Corrected vertical angle: 36 26’ 52.4”
Meron nang corrected vertical angle at corrected NPD, ano pa ba kelangan?
Latitude : 14.6
Azimuth of sun (consider the time of the day, the method used & kung iyung conventional o iyung cosine law): 98 40’
33.97”
Azimuth of the mark: 99 40’ 34.97”

SET II
Mean horizontal angle: 359 00’ 16.75”
Mean Vertical Angle: 36 22’ 51.5”
Mean Time: 3:34:38.75
NPD: 74 31’ 22.1”
Correction for NPD: (3: 34:38.75 – 2:00:00)*( -44.47)
Corrected NPD: 74 30’ 11.95”
Vertical Angle: 36 22’ 51.5”
Correction for the vertical angle: 00 01’07.86”
Corrected vertical angle: 36 21’ 43.64”
Meron nang corrected vertical angle at corrected NPD, ano pa ba kelangan?
Latitude of the place: 14.6
Azimuth of the sun : 98 41’ 22.26”
Azimuth of the mark: 99 41’ 05.51”

True azimuth of the sun = mean of the two computed azimuth of the sun. = 98 40’ 58.12”
True azimuth of the line = mean of the two computed azimuth of the line. = 99 40’ 50.24”

SOLUTION FOR THE PROBABLE ERROR

Probable error = 0.33725 (diff in azimuth of line, set I and set II) = 10.3”

SOLUTION FOR THE STANDARD TIME

SET I
Mean horizontal angle: 358 59’59”
Mean Time: 3:32:48.75
Corrected NPD: 74 30’13.31
Corrected vertical angle: 36 26’ 52.4”
Latitude : 14.6

Solve for the hour angle using either cosine law, the conventional formula used or, knowing the azimuth, we may likewise
use the sine law.
Therefore, using set I, the hour angle = apparent time = 55 36’ 28.04” = 3h 42m 25.87s
Local civil time = apparent time – eq’n of time = 3:42:25.87s - (+0:03:2.49) = 3:39:23.38

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SET II
Mean horizontal angle: 359 00’ 16.75
Mean Time: 3:34:38.75
NPD: 74 31’ 22.1”
Corrected NPD: 74 30’ 11.95”
Corrected vertical angle: 36 21’ 43.64”
Latitude of the place: 14.6

Using set II, the hour angle = apparent time = 55 41’ 50.97” = 3h 42m 47.4s
Local civil time = apparent time – equation of time = 3h 42m 47.4s – (+0:03:2.49) = 3:39:44.91

Mean local civil time = 3:39:34.15

Given the longitude of the place to be 121 25’, the standard time (at  = 120) = 3:39:34.15 – 00:05:40 = 3:33:54.15
→ check nyo na lang, kasi sa ibang problems iyung set I lang ang ginagamit sa pag-solve nang standard time,
hindi na ginagamit iyung mean hour angle ng set I at set II.

The mean time of observation using the watch is 3:33:43.75, it differs from the standard time by 00:00:10.4. We therefore
state that the watch is 10.4 sec late or 10.4 sec too slow.
→ check nanaman, dahil nga kung minsan, set I lang ginagamit sa pag-solve ng standard time, huwag na i-
consider ang set II. Sa case na set I lang ang gamit, standard time = 3:36:45.87 and the watch will be 3min, 57.12
sec late.

Variations in problems on solar observation:

1. given an initial horizontal reading.
Ex. 1: Kung sa problem given ka nang initial horizontal reading na 00 00’ 05”, + ang error mo para mag zero
ang initial horizontal reading, therefore, the correction for the horizontal reading is –5”, i.e., corrected mean
horizontal reading mo for set I will be 358 59’ 54” and the azimuth of the mark for set I will become 99 40’
39.97”.
EX. 2: If on the other hand, we’re given an initial horizontal angle of 359 59’ 55”, we have an error of -5 for the
initial horizontal reading to be at 0, thus we apply a correction of +5 to the horizontal angle and the corrected
mean horizontal reading for set I will be 359 00’ 04” and the azimuth of the mark for set I will become 99 40’
29.97”

2. Given the magnetic bearing of the line and the magnetic declination is to be determined.
Ex. 1: We’re given the bearing of the line AB to be N 80 21’ W. Determine the orientation of the line as
computed from the mean true (grid) azimuth. Computing for the difference of the grid azimuth (N 80 19’ 9.76”
W) and of magnetic bearing, we get 1’ 50.24” E which is the magnetic declination.
TN MN

magnetic declination = 1’ 50.24” E

true bearing = N 80 19’ 9.76” W

magnetic bearing = N 80 21’ W
B

Baka pede rin i2 gamitin

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Intersection of two lines is a point - diri man pwidi isquare hin intersiction of two lines.
Intersection of a line and a plane is a point - Kung ang papel ay tutusukin mo ng stick, mabubutas
ang papel at ang butas na nabuo ay ang siyang ating maihahalintulad sa “intersection of a plane and a
line” at ang butas ay ang “point” na nabuo ng intersection ng plane at ng line.
Intersection of two planes is a line - ating isipin na “plane” ang mga gilid ng karton. Kung ating
titignan, ang kanto ng horizontal at vertical na plane ay ang ating maihahalintulad sa “intersection of two
planes” at kung ating pagmamasdan ay mayroong linya itong binubuo. Maaari rin nating ipagpalagay na
ang sahig ng bahay ay isang plane at ang pader ang isa pang plane. Ang intersection ng sahig at pader ay,
kung ating titignan, ay linya.
Intersection of a sphere and a line may be two or only one point - kung mayroon tayong bola at tutusukin
natin ng isang stick, may dalawang butas na mabubuo na siyang maihahalintulad sa “intersection of a
sphere and a line.” Subalit kapag ang line ay tangent lamang sa sphere, isang point lamang ang
intersection nila.
Intersection of a sphere and a plane is a circle (or a point) - Kung ang bola ay natabasan at ating
susubukan na ibalik muli, mayroong linyang mabubuo sa pinagtabasan nito at kung ating titignan ng
maigi, ang linyang tinutukoy natin ay bumubuo ng isang circle. Consider figure 1. Kapag ang plane ay
tangent naman sa sphere, walang nabubuo na circle kundi ay ang makikita lamang ay tuldok o point.
Additional notes: - kung sinabing “a plane containing the line AB,” isipin ninyo na sa papel ay may
nakasulat na points A at B na pinagdurugtong ng linya na siyang tinatawag na “line AB.” Ang line AB ay
masasabing nasa plane ng papel (or simply on the paper) o kung babaliktarin natin, ang papel o plane ng
papel ay nagcocontain ng line AB. Ang papel na tinutukoy natin ang sinasabing “plane containing the
line AB.” Ang line AB ay arbitraryo lamang at maaaring maging vertical line, axis of rotation at iba pa.
Gayun din ang points A at B na ginawang panghalimbawa sa ibaba, maaari itong maisip na zenith at
nadir, north at south at iba pa. So, kung sinabing hour circle through A and B, parang ganun din, iyung
plane na nag-intersect sa sphere ay dumadaan sa center ng sphere at sa points A and B (o sa line AB)

Figure 1

GREAT CIRCLE - The intersection of a sphere by a plane passing through its center. The shortest
distance between two points on a sphere is along the great circle passing through them. Considering the
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figure above, if the radius of the sphere is “R” and that of the circle (shaded portion) is “r”, then we have
a great circle if r = R. Pero kelan nagkakaroon nag great circle, o paano nagagawa ang great circle? Ito
ay nafo-form kung ang plane ay dumaraan sa gitna ng sphere. Ang gitna ng sphere ay ang siya ring gitna
ng circle na naform ng sphere at plane. Bukod pa rito, sinasabi rin na ang great circle ay ang circle na
may pinakamalaking radius na maaaring gawin sa isang sphere. Kung kaya’t kapag ang intersection ng
circle at ng plane ay hindi great circle, mas maliit ang radius nito sa sphere, ang center nito’y iba rin sa
center ng sphere at ang tawag rito ay small circle. Sa drawing sa itaas, ang gitna ng circle ay ang tuldok
sa shaded circle at makikita na wala ito sa gitna ng sphere, ito ay halimbawa ng isang small circle.
Maaari rin nating sabihin na ang great circle ay ang naghahati sa sphere sa equal volume o surface area.
Nasabi rin sa itaas na ang pinakamalapit na distance sa pagitan ng dalawang points sa sphere ay
matatagpuan sa great circle na nagpapaloob sa dalawang points. Kumbaga sa plane geometry, ang
shortest distance between two points is a straight line. Kung may dalawang points sa papel, maaari nating
ipagdugtong ang dalawang points sa napakaraming paraan, subalit kung ating susukatin ang kabuoang
haba ng linyang nagdugtong sa dalawang points, sigurado tayo na wala pang mas iiksi pa sa isang
deretsong linyang nagdurugtong dito. Sa kabilang dako, halimbawa naman ay may dalawang points sa
surface ng sphere. Maraming paraan upang ipagdugtong ang dalawang points. Ngunit kapag ito ay
nakapaloob sa isang plane na dumaraan sa gitna ng sphere (i.e., nakapaloob sa isang great circle) at ating
susukatin ang haba ng linya (o arc of great circle) makakasiguro tayo na ito ang pinakamaiksing linya na
ating magagawa sa pagitan ng dalawang points.
CELESTIAL SPHERE - Sphere where in the earth is the center and at the surface are the celestial bodies
such as stars, moon, planets, etc.
NORTH AND SOUTH CELESTIAL POLES - intersection of the rotation axis of the earth and of the
sphere. In thinking about the rotation axis of the earth, think of a top, o sa Filipino ay “trumpo.” Ang
axis of rotation ng trumpo ay ang kanyang pako. Isipin ninyo ang bola na tinusok/tinuhog ng barbeque
stick, iikot lamang ito kapag ang sentro ng pag-ikot ay ang barbeque stick, sa halimbawang ito, ang
barbeque stick ang siyang tinatawag na “axis of rotation” ng bola. Ang barbeque stick na ginamit ay
siyang maihahalintulad sa linya/guhit na tinatawag na “axis of rotation” ng earth at ang butas na nabuo ay
maihahalintulad sa north at south poles. Sa figure sa ibaba, ang “N” at “S” ay ang north at south celestial
poles na nabubuo kapag ang axis of rotation ng earth ay papahabain o i-e-extend hanggang sa surface ng
sphere. Ang “E” naman ay ang center ng sphere kung saan, sa celestial sphere, ay ang earth. See figure 2
below.
HOUR CIRCLE - a great circle containing the poles, thus perpendicular to the celestial equator. Sa
figure 2 ay makikita natin ang dalawang planes na nagco-contain ng axis of rotation ng earth. Sapagkat
nakapaloob sa axis of rotation ang gitna ng celestial sphere, maaari nating sabihin na ang “intersection of
the sphere and of the planes containing the earth” (o ang intersection ng sphere at ng planes na nagco-
contain ng axis of rotation ng earth) ay great circle. Ang great circles na ito ang tinatawag na hour circle.
Tandaan na ang hour circle ay hindi mabubuo kung ang plane na nag-i-intersect sa sphere ay walang linya
na tinatawag na axis of rotation of the earth. Tandaan din na ang ginawang halimbawa na planes sa figure
ay dalawa lamang sa sangkatutak na planes na maaaring mag-contain ng axis of rotation ng earth.
CELESTIAL EQUATOR - plane perpendicular to the rotation axis containing the center.
Halimbawa may vertical na lapis na nakatusok sa papel na nasa lamesa (horizontal ang papel),
masasabi natin na perpendicular ang lapis sa papel o perpendicular ang papel sa lapis. Ang lapis
ay ang axis of rotation at ang papel ay ang plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Idagdag pa
natin na nasa plane din ang point E (plane containing the center), masasabi natin na ang
“intersection of the sphere and of the plane perpendicular to the rotation axis containing the
center” ay great circle. Ang tawag sa great circle na ito ay “celestial equator.” See figure 3.

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S
axis of rotation
Figure 2

Figure 3

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CELESTIAL PARALLEL - a small circle parallel to the celestial equator. Tulad nang nabanggit
kanina, kung ang plane ay di dumaraan sa center of sphere, ang intersection ng plane at ng sphere
ay hindi na great circle kundi, ang tawag na rito ay small circle. Iyung circle na nasa gitna ay ang
equator at iyung dalawang planes ay parallel sa equator. Kung gayon, ang circle na ang circle na
may area na nai-shade sa figure 4 ay ang tinatawag na “celestial parallel. Dahil ang equator ay
perpendicular sa axis of rotation, masasabi rin nating perpendicular ang dalawang planes sa axis
of rotation. parallel to the equator and of the sphere, masasabi rin natin na ang dalawang shaded
regions na ito ay parallel sa isat-isa.

Figure 4

ZENITH - the intersection of the celestial sphere and of the vertical of the observer above his
horizon. Madali itong maintindihan kung ikokumpara natin ito sa pag-gamit natin sa theodolite.
Kung ang theodolite ay natapos nang ma-level, ginagamitan ito ng plumb bob. Ang tali ng plumb
bob ay sinasabing vertical at ang direksyon nitong pitaas ay ang zenith at and direksyon nitong
pababa ay ang nadir. Kung ang telescope naman ng instrumento natin ay ilalagay natin sa
vertical angle na 90 o di kaya’y sa vertical position, ang line of sight ng telescope ay nagko-
coincide sa linya ng tali ng plumb bob at ang direksyon ng telescope ay parehas din sa tinuturo ng
plumb bob, ang zenith sa itaas, at ang nadir sa ibaba.
NADIR - the intersection of the celestial sphere and of the vertical of the observer below his
horizon. Basahin nyo na lang uli iyung nakasulat sa zenith. Ang linyang nagdurugtong sa zenith
at nadir ng observer ay ang tinatawag na “vertical line of the observer.”
- opposite of zenith

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CELESTIAL HORIZON - the plane perpendicular to the vertical of the observer and containing the
observer (thus the center of the earth –assumption is that the distances of celestial bodies are large
enough that the radius of the earth is neglected). Balikan ang nabanggit na theodolite sa
explanation sa “zenith.” Kung ang telescope naman ay nasa horizontal position o 0 vertical
angle at ating paiikutin horizontally ang instrumento, ang plane na naform ng line of sight ay ang
ating horizon. Dahil ang zenith at nadir ay may vertical angle na 90 at ang sa horizon naman ay
0, perpendicular ang horizon sa vertical (line) ng observer.
VERTICAL PLANE - plane containing the zenith and perpendicular to the horizon. Maihahalitulad
natin ito sa explanation para sa hour circle. Ang pinagkaiba ay ang axis of rotation sa hour circle
ay magiging vertical line, ang north at south celestial poles ay zenith at nadir sa vertical plane.
Bagaman magkaiba ang hour circle at vertical circle, tandaan na pareho silang dumadaan sa
center ng sphere, kaya ang intersection ng vertical plane at ng celestial sphere ay great circle din.
Tulad ng hour circles, napakarami ring planes na maaaring dumaan sa vertical line ng observer,
ika nga eh infinite.
ALMUCANTAR - a small circle parallel to the celestial horizon. Para rin itong celestial parallel
subalit instead na sa equator sila parallel, sa horizon sila parallel. Parehong small circle ang
celestial parallel at ang almucantar. Pero kung ang celestial parallel ay perpendicular sa axis of
rotation ng earth, ang almucantar naman ay perpendicular sa…? (sa vertical (line) ng observer)

zenith

NCP

SCP

 

nadir

Figure 5
CELESTIAL MERIDIAN - observer’s vertical plane containing the poles
- it contains the hour circle through the zenith
- Tulad ng nasabi, napakaraming planes na maaaring mag contain ng axis
of rotation ng earth, ganun din sa vertical plane (o vertical circle), pero sa dami ng planes na
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maaaring bumuo ng hour circles o vertical circles, mayroong isang great circle na parehong
nagco-contain ng axis of rotation ng earth at ng vertical line (kung ganun, kino-contain din nito
ang south at north celestial poles at ang zenith at nadir). Ang tawag sa great circle na ito na
parehong vertical circle at hour circle ay celestial meridian. Sa figure sa itaas (figure 5), ang
plane  ang plane containing the axis of rotation of the earth at vertical line. Ang circle na nabuo
ng plane  at ng sphere ang celestial meridian, at ito rin ang kadalasang tinataguriang observer’s
meridian. Ito rin ang plane na nabubuo ng telescope kapag ito ay naka-orient sa north at inikot
ang vertical circle ng 360.
PRIME VERTICAL - vertical plane perpendicular to the celestial meridian. Kung ang plane  na nasa
figure 5 ay perpendicular sa plane  at kino-contain nito ang vertical line ng observer, ang
intersection nito sa sphere ang tinatawag na prime vertical. So, kung ikaw ay nasa longitude na 
= 120 E, ang meridian mo ay matatagpuan sa kinaroroonan mo, paikot sa likod mo ( = 300 E o
di kaya’y 60 W) at ang prime vertical ay nasa  = 30 E paikot sa 210 E (o 150 W).
NORTH/SOUTH POINTS - points on the celestial sphere where the celestial meridian intersects the
celestial horizon. Tulad ng nabanggit kanina, ang celestial meridian ay katumbas ng telescope na pinaikot
ng 360 ang vertical circle kung ito ay naka-orient sa north o south. Kapag ang vertical angle ay nasa
posisyong 0 o horizontal (pahalang) at naka orient sa norh (o south), ang telescope ay parehong nasa
plane ng horizon at celestial meridian at sa posisyong ito kanyang tinuturo ang north (o south point)
EAST/WEST POINTS - intersection points on the celestial sphere with the celestial horizon
- situated on the line of intersection of the celestial horizon and the celestial equator. Tulad
ng nabanggit, ang east at west points ay matatagpuan sa intersection ng horizon at celestial equator. Ang
east-west line ay perpendicular sa north-sout line.
ECLIPTIC - plane containing the center of the sun, the barycenter of the earth-moon system, and the
inertial heliocentric velocity vector of the earth-moon system’s barycenter.
- di ko mintindihan, kayo? try nyo na lang iyung isa pang definition
- the apparent path traced by the sun among the stars on the celestial sphere. Ito ay ang path ng
“true sun” paikot sa earth(ang mean sun ay ipinagpalagay na imiikot along the plane ng equator).
ECLIPTIC POLES - intersection of the celestial sphere and of the line perpendicular to the ecliptic
containing the center of the earth. Balikan natin ang halimbawa natin sa axis of rotation ng earth.
Ngayon, instead na tutusukin natin ang bola, itali natin ito sa isang dulo ng tali at ang kabilang dulo ng
tali naman any itali sa isang stick. Kung papaikutin natin ang bola paikot sa stick, ang stick ang tinatawag
na “axis of revolution” at hindi na axis of rotation. Ang nabuong bilog ng bola paikot sa stick ay ang
path nito at maihahalintulad sa ecliptic. Ang dulo ng stick ang tinatawag na ecliptic poles at sa gitna nito
matatagpuan ang earth. Tandaan na iba ang north at south ecliptic poles sa north at south celestial poles.
ECLIPTIC PARALLEL - intersection of a plane parallel to the ecliptic and of the celestial sphere. Parang
celestial parallel pero instead na parallel sa equator, ito ay parallel sa ecliptic.
ECLIPTIC MERIDIAN - intersection of the sphere and of the plane perpendicular to the ecliptic containing
the ecliptic poles. Maikukumpara ito sa hour circle pero dito, instead na perpendicular ang plane sa
equator, ito ay perpendicular sa ecliptic at instead na containing the axis of rotation, ang ecliptic meridian
contains the north and south ecliptic poles.
EQUINOX - intersection of the ecliptic and of the equator. Waray problema dinhi!
VERNAL EQUINOX - point of intersection near which the sun crosses the celestial equator from south
to north in the spring (around March)
AUTUMNAL EQUINOX - point of intersection near which the sun crosses the celestial equator from
north to south in the fall (around September)
OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC - acute angle between the celestial equator and the ecliptic. Ito
iyung angular distance ng ecliptic mula sa equator. Ika nga eh, obliquity of the ecliptic is the amount of
rotation needed to make the ecliptic coincide with the equator.
SOLSTICES - two opposite points on the ecliptic 90 from either equinox
- near the points where the sun reaches its greatest angular distance from the celestial equator,
north (summer solstice) or south (winter solstice)

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EQUINOCTIAL COLURE - hour circle through the poles and the equinoxes. Parang iyung sa hour
circle pero instead na through the poles, through the equinox iyung great circle. Ganun din sa solsticial
colure.
SOLSTICIAL COLURE - hour circle through the poles and the solstices
- perpendicular to the equinoctial colure.

NOTE: At times, a statement goes “the plane containing the poles,” this is the same as the statement “the
intersection of the sphere and the plane containing the poles.” That is, the phrase “the plane…” may be
interchanged with the phrase “the intersection of the sphere and of the plane…” or with the phrase “the
great circle…” (kung sinabing “the plane containing…”, parehas din yan sa statement o phrase na “the
intersection of the sphere and of the plane containing…” at ng phrase na “the great circle containing…”).

Isa pang note: Sa exam last Saturday, maraming nagkamali sa problem solving kasi malamang, pagkapindot sa
calculator (matapos paikut-ikutin ang solution), meroong nagtugmang answer na lumabas sa calculator sa
mga choices sa papel. It doesn’t work that way in the exams. Although your answer may be in the list of
choices, it doesn’t necessarily mean you’ve got the right answer, as what happened in Saturday’s exam.
The only way to assure yourself you’ve got it correctly is to make sure you’ve got the right solution.
Practice kayo mag-solve ng problems sa bahay nyo. It is most effective if you solve it on your own
without looking at sample solutions, as is the case in the real exam. If you have sample problems with
solutions and answers, wag ninyong tignan iyung solution, solve it without looking at the solution. Study
your solution kung di magkaparehas sa answer na binigay. Kung di talaga makuha, wag lang tignan
iyung solution kundi tignan at pag-aralan ng maigi para malaman san kayo nagkulang o nagkamali sa
pagso-solve.

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