Design of Steel Structures: Introduction

Prof. S. B. Singh
Civil Engineering Department
Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani
Pilani-333031, Rajasthan
E-mail: [email protected]
Alternate E-mail: [email protected]
Phone No. 9414648283 (Mobile); 01596-515649 (O)
Office Room: 1209-F
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STRUCTURAL STEEL: TYPES,

PROPERTIES & PRODUCTS-I

Dr. S. B. Singh
 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
3

 Strength
 Speed of erection
 Prefabrication
 Demountability
 Easily recycled and hence greener than concrete
 Handled by trained persons in the factory - better
quality control than concrete structures
 SHORT HISTORY
4

Steel has been known since 3000

B.C.

The 7 m tall iron pillar of Delhi,

India in the Qutub Minar complex
is 98% pure wrought iron and
has withstood corrosion for over
1,600 years!
 SHORT HISTORY (cont)
5

The first arch bridge in the world – made of

cast iron over River Severn, near
Coalbrookdale, U.K.; Year:1779, Span: 30.4m
 Schematic diagram of steel making
6

Ref: Kulak & Grondin (2002), Limit States

Design in Structural Steel, 7th ed., Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction.
 IRON AND STEEL IN INDIA
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 STRUCTURE OF STEEL
8

Iron-carbon
phase
diagram
 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
9

Purpose : to change the mechanical

properties - ductility, hardness, yield
strength, or impact resistance.
 Electrical and thermal conductivity are
slightly altered.
 Young's modulus is unaffected

In India heat treated steel amounts to ≈ 5%

 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
10

Main Techniques
 Annealing: Heated to just > 910 C for 1 hour to transform
all the ferrite into austenite; Then cooled in the furnace
slowly, in the realm of 38 °C per hour.
 Normalizing: Similar to Annealing- But cooled outside
furnace in cool still air. Cheaper & higher strength than
annealing
 Quenching and tempering: Most common; tempering
involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below
the eutectoid temperature and then cooling
 TYPES AND USES OF STEEL
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As carbon content rises, steel becomes harder and

stronger through heat treatment; but reduces ductility
and weldability & lowers the melting point.
 ALLOYING ELEMENTS
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Alloying one metal with other metal(s) or non-

metal(s) often enhances its properties.

Normal alloying elements(in addition to

carbon): manganese (the most-common
one), sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and
boron.
Less common: aluminum, cobalt, copper,
cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin,
and zirconium.
 Weldability of Steel
13

Measured by carbon equivalent, Ceq, as per IS: 2062,

1992,

Where C = carbon, Mn = manganese, Cr = chromium,

Mo = molybdenum, V = vanadium, Ni = nickel and Cu
= copper
 Post-heating of the weld zone improves weldability.

 If carbon content < 0.12 %, then C eq can be tolerated

up to 0.45 %
KILLED AND SEMI-KILLED STEEL
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 Steel which has the highest degree of

deoxidation (containing < 30 parts per
million of oxygen) is termed killed-steel.

 Semi-killed steel has an intermediate

degree of deoxidation (about 30-150 ppm of
oxygen).
 Rimmed Steel has the lowest degree of
deoxidation and may contain scattered
blowholes throughout its structure.
 Chemical Composition of steel
15
 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
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 Carbon Steel (IS: 2062) – Carbon and

Manganese are the main elements. Ultimate
tensile strength → 410 to 440 MPa ; Yield
strength → 200 to 300 MPa
 High Strength Carbon Steel (IS: 961) – high
carbon content →reduced ductility,
toughness and weldability. Used in towers
where relatively light members are joined by
bolting. Ultimate tensile strength → 480 to
550 MPa ; yield strength →350 MPa to 400
MPa.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL(cont.)
17

 Medium and High Strength Micro Alloyed Steel

(IS:8500) –low carbon content; high strength
due to alloys such as niobium, vanadium,
titanium or boron (total alloying elements <
0.25 %). Ultimate tensile strength → 440 to 590
MPa; Yield strength → 300 to 450 MPa.

 High Strength Quenched and Tempered Steels

–Heat treated to develop high strength.
Require special welding techniques. Ultimate
tensile strength →700 to 950 MPa ;Yield
strength →550 to 700 MPa.
 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL(cont.)
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 Weathering Steels – These are low-alloy

atmospheric corrosion resistant steels, which
are often left unpainted . Ultimate tensile
strength: 480 MPa ; Yield strength: 350 MPa.

 Stainless Steels –Low carbon steels having a

minimum of 10.5% (max – 20%) chromium and
0.50% Nickel.

 Fire Resistant Steels – Also called as thermo –

mechanically treated steels, they perform
better than ordinary steel under fire.
 TENSILE STRENGTH
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Typical Engineering Stress- strain curve of tension coupons as per IS 1608

IDEALIZED STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
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The number after Fe is characteristic ultimate tensile strength in MPa

OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AS PER
IS 800:2007
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 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH
23
 DUCTILITY
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Ductility is the capacity to undergo large inelastic

deformations without significant loss of strength or stiffness.

The local necking and the cup

Tensile test of cast iron
and cone fracture surfaces are
shows low ductility
typical for ductile metals.
 Importance of Ductility
25

Ductile structure gives adequate warning (by

undergoing large deformation before
collapse) in the case of excessive or sudden
loading such as earthquake or blast.
As per Euro code 3 structures will have
adequate ductility if

 BRITTLE FRACTURE
26

 A right combination of low temperature, an

abrupt change in section size (notch effect)
or an imperfection, and the presence of
tensile stress can initiate a brittle fracture.
 This may initiate as a crack which may
propagate and cause the member to fail.
 Examples of Brittle fracture
27
 Charpy V-notch test (IS 1757)
28

Steel with Charpy impact toughness > 20 Joules at the

lowest working temperature should be selected to avoid
brittle fracture
 LAMELLAR TEARING
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 Lamellar tearing may occur in certain welded joints.

For example, a tear can occur if a large weld (or
welds from both sides) is placed on a thick plate,
since the shrinkage strains from the welding
operation will be large and restrained. .
Methods to Prevent Lamellar Tearing
30

 Joint details can be changed to avoid the

possibility of lamellar tearing.
 In tee joints, double-fillet weld joints are
less susceptible than full-penetration
welds.
 Balanced welds on both sides of the joint
present less risk than large single-sided
welds.
 In corner joints by placing the bevel for the
joint on the edge of the plate
Joint Alternatives to Reduce Lamellar
Tearing
31
 HIGH-TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
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 Fire Protection Methods
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Two broad groups of Fire protection methods:

Fire prevention: Active and Passive Methods
Active methods
Fire detection and alarm,
Fire extinction (fire extinguishers, fire hydrant, sprinklers),
Smoke control and emergency exits.
Passive methods
Structural fire protection,
Layout of escape routes,
Fire brigade access route,
Control of combustible materials of construction.
Often combinations of the above methods are employed
 Fire Protection Methods(Cont.)
34

Fire protection systems:

 Spray Protection: Sprays containing asbestos
free materials, (e.g., vermiculate or mineral fiber)
in a cement or gypsum binder are applied for the
prescribed thickness.
 Fire Protection Methods(Cont.)
35

 Board Protections (Dry System):

Plasterboards or boards based on mineral
fiber, calcium silicate, gypsum plaster or
vermiculate are fixed around the exposed
parts of steel members
 Fire Protection Methods (Cont.)
36

 Intumescent coatings: Under the action of fire they

foam and swell producing an insulating layer, which may be
50 times as thick as the original paint film.

 Concrete Encasement: Full or partial encasement of

open steel sections in concrete

 Use of Water: Some buildings with hollow sections

columns have been linked together as a system and filled
with water fed from a gravity reservoir

FIRE RESISTANT STEELS (FRS)

 CORROSION & DURABILITY
37

 Corrosion is the main reason for the reluctant use of Steel

in India.
 Sea water, acid or alkaline vapors will hasten the corrosion
process.
 0.075 mm/year of the thickness may be lost due to
corrosion.
 Now, paints/ coatings are available to enhance the life.
 There a number of types of corrosion
 RESISTANCE TO CORROSION
38

 Blast cleaning before paint/coating

 Paint systems - zinc or aluminium based
primary coat + 2 to 3 layers of finishing
coats (Table 28 & 29 of IS 800:2007)
 Metallic coatings- galvanizing &
sheradizing (zinc), metal spraying (zinc or
aluminium), and electroplating (for
fasteners)
 Corrosion resistant weathering steels (20%
expensive)
 FATIGUE RESISTANCE
39

 The damage and failure of materials under cyclic

loads is called fatigue damage.
 Fatigue not critical when there are < 2 x 10^6 to 5
x10^6 cycles of stress.
 The following members should be checked for
fatigue:
 Supporting lifting or moving loads (Gantry Girders,
Bridges)
 Subjected to wind induced oscillation of large number
of cycles
 Supporting vibrating machines.
 Welds may have reduced strength due to small cracks,
local stress concentrations and abrupt changes of
geometry.
 HARDNESS
40

•Hardness indicates the

resistance to indentations
and scratching
•Several methods are
available
•In these, an ‘indenter’ is
forced on the surface and the
size of indentation is
measured.
•Vickers hardness machine is
shown on the left
 RESIDUAL STRESSES
41

 Uneven cooling of members after welding

or hot rolling results in residual stresses.
 Residual stresses increase in magnitude
with increase in size of the element
 RESIDUAL STRESSES(cont.)
42

Idealized residual stress distribution

 STRESS CONCENTRATION
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 Abrupt change in geometry and holes for

bolts. The produce stress concentrations,
which are localized stresses, greater than the
average stress in the member
 Fatigue cracks always start at stress raisers
STRUCTURAL STEEL PRODUCTS
44

They are classified into the following:

 Flat hot rolled products – plates, flat bars, sheets

and strips
 Hot rolled sections – rolled shapes, and hollow

structural sections
 Bolts

 Welding electrodes

 Cold rolled shapes

 Hot Rolled Sections
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 Choice of Section
46

 Governed by the cross-sectional area, section

modulus and radius of gyration
 IS:808 and IS handbook No.1 lists the properties
 Important: Availability in the market and the
ease with which they may be connected (medium
channels, beams and many equal angles are
readily obtained)
 Catalogs from SAIL, Tata Steel, Essar Steel, etc
 Choice of section
47

 IS:1852 gives allowable rolling tolerances:

Thickness, amount of flange and web warping
and deviation of web warping.
 In IS 800:2007 there is no min. thickness
requirements
 However better to use min. thickness of 6mm for
the main members and 5mm for secondary
members exposed to the atmosphere, especially
in coastal areas
 Wide Flange Sections
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 These beams have flanges in which the planes are

nearly parallel.

•Excellentsectional performance- high bending and

buckling resistance
•Easy fabrication – no tapered washer while bolting;
gussets welded directly.
•Economical due to higher Z for the same weight.
 WELDED AND HYBRID SECTIONS
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 Tapered / Castellated girders
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 Tubular Sections (IS 1161)
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 Hollow Sections (IS 4923)
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 Cold formed Sections (IS 801 )
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 Cold formed steel sections are made from light-

gauge steel strips, 2mm to 4mm thick (20 B.G.- 8
B.G.)
 Due the possibility of local instability, lips are
provided to give increased stiffness.
 HIGH-PERFORMANCE STEEL
54

 High performance steel, HPS-485W, was

developed in USA, during 1994
 Enhancements in: weldability, toughness,
corrosion resistance, ductility, fatigue and fire
resistance, formability, and strength.
 As of November 2001, 121 HPS bridges are at
various stages of design and construction.
 Three grades of HPS : HPS-345W, HPS-485W, and
HPS-690W; HPS 485W is widely used.
 HPS Bridge
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 The bridge in Tennessee is a two-span continuous structure

on state Route 53 over Martin Creek in Jackson County-
25% reduction in weight and 16% in cost
 STAINLESS STEEL
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 Stainless steel developed in the 20th century as a

rust-resistant alloy steel (low carbon and > 10.5%
chromium).
 Available grades: SS 304, SS 304L, SS 306, SS
409 & SS 430
 Stainless Steel
57

Stress-Stain curve and India’s first stainless steel roof at Hissar,

Haryana
 Advantages of Steel as Structural
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Material
 High Strength
 High Ductility
 Uniformity
 Environment-friendly
 Versatile
 Amenable for Prefabrication
 Permanence
 Easy to repair and add additional structure
 Advantages of Steel as Structural
59
Material
 Least Disturbance to Community
 Fracture Toughness

 Elasticity

Steel also has a few disadvantages:

 Maintenance cost due to painting

 Fire-proofing costs

 Susceptibility to Buckling

 Reduction in strength due to Fatigue loads

 TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
60
 Different structural members in
61
industrial buildings
•Beams (purlins,
girts)

•Tension members
(ties, bracings)

•Compression
members
(columns)

•Beam-columns

•Torsion members

•plates
 EXAMPLES OF STEEL STRUCTURES
62

 The following slides show different types of

structures in which steel has been used a structural
material.
 They include
 Bridges
 Towers
 Multi-storey buildings
 Storage tanks
 Industrial buildings, etc
 Pamban Railway Bridge, Rameshwaram
63
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco
64
Willis (Sears) Tower, Water Tank &
Transmission line Tower
65
Beijing National Olympics Stadium in
Beijing, China
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 A typical pre-engineered building,
67
Kansas City, MO, USA
 The Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los
68
Angeles, CA, USA
 Fabrication and Erection
69

 Activities in the fabrication shop include:

 Exact cutting of length based on the fabrication drawing
 Straightening of members
 Cambering of beams
 Drilling or punching of holes
 Welding of gusset plates
 Machining of butt joints, caps and bases
 Surface preparation such as shot blasting
 Painting or galvanizing after pickling in acids
 Marking
 Shop assembly and erection
 Inspection and testing
 Packing