College of Engineering and Information Technology

IT 224
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
INCLUDING MODELING AND SIMULATION

Prepared By:
Jessica Rose E. Fernandez, Ph.EdD

[email protected] Surigao Del Norte State University

 Module 1: A Complete Overview

Introduction

Quantitative methods encompass various techniques and tools to quantify data

and generate measurable, mathematical insights. These methods are integral to

various fields, including economics, finance, social sciences, and natural sciences,
helping professionals and researchers transform raw data into valuable

information.

What Is Quantitative Method?

The quantitative method is a research approach that emphasizes using numerical
measurements and statistical analysis to understand phenomena. This method
involves collecting data that can be quantified and subjecting it to various
statistical techniques to test hypotheses or explore relationships between
variables. It is widely used in science, economics, psychology, and social sciences,
where researchers aim to produce objective results that can be generalized across
populations. The process typically involves designing experiments or surveys,
gathering measurable data, and analyzing this data using mathematical models to
draw conclusions or make predictions. Quantitative methods are valued for their
precision and the ability to handle large volumes of data, making them crucial for

making informed decisions and validating theories.

Why Do We Need the Quantitative Method?

The quantitative method is crucial in research and decision-making for several
reasons:
Objective Analysis: Quantitative methods provide a framework for obtaining
objective data that can be universally measured and analyzed. This reduces the
influence of personal biases and subjectivity in interpreting results.
Generalizability: Using statistical methods to analyze data from a sample,
quantitative research allows for conclusions that can be generalized to a larger
population. This is particularly valuable in fields like medicine or economics,
where researchers must broadly apply findings.
 Predictive Capabilities: Quantitative analysis often involves developing
models to predict outcomes based on measurable variables. These predictions
are essential in weather forecasting, finance, and logistics.
Replicability: The structured nature of quantitative research, emphasizing

precise measurement and replicable procedures, ensures that studies can be

repeated. This replication is key to verifying results and building on existing
knowledge.
Statistical Validity: Quantitative research uses statistical tools to validate
hypotheses. This provides a robust framework for testing theories and
establishing facts with a known degree of accuracy.

Decision Making: Quantitative methods are used to make informed decisions in

business and policy-making. For example, by analyzing customer data,
businesses can optimize their strategies to meet market demands better.

Types of Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods can be broadly categorized into four main types,
each suited to specific goals and contexts:
Surveys and Questionnaires
1. Purpose: To collect data from a large group of people efficiently.
2. Method: Involves standardized questions to ensure consistency and
comparability of responses. Surveys can be conducted online, in person, or
over the phone.
3. Application: Common in market research, sociology, and health studies to
gauge public opinion, satisfaction, or behaviors.
Experiments
1. Purpose: To determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating
variables.
2. Method: Participants are typically divided into control and experimental

groups to test the impact of specific changes.

3. Application: It is widely used in scientific research, psychology, and
medicine, such as testing new drugs or psychological interventions.

longitudinal Studies
1. Purpose: To track changes over time.
2. Method: Data is collected from the same subjects repeatedly over a
prolonged period.
3. Application: Useful in developmental psychology, education, and health
sciences to study changes across the lifespan or the effects of long-term
interventions.

Secondary Data Analysis

1. Purpose: To analyze existing data collected for other research purposes.

2. Method: Involves the statistical analysis of data from government

databases, historical records, or previous research studies.
3. Application: Economists, historians, and policy analysts often use this
method to conduct large-scale studies without requiring direct data
collection.
Characteristics of Quantitative Method

Quantitative research methods are distinguished by several key characteristics

that define their approach to gathering and analyzing data:
1. Structured Research Instruments: Quantitative research typically uses tools
like surveys, questionnaires, or equipment that provide measurable and
repeatable data. These instruments are designed to ensure consistency across
all participants and settings.
2. Numerical Data: The cornerstone of quantitative research is its reliance on

numerical data. This data can be easily quantified and subjected to statistical
analysis, allowing for precise and objective conclusions.
3. Statistical Analysis: Quantitative methods employ statistical techniques to
analyze data. This includes descriptive statistics to summarize the data and
inferential statistics to make predictions or test hypotheses.
4. Objective Methodology: This approach is designed to maintain objectivity and
minimize researcher bias. The research process is often detached from the
researcher, allowing for findings independent of personal feelings or beliefs.
5. Control and Manipulation of Variables: In experimental designs, quantitative
research involves manipulating variables to observe effects on dependent
variables. This helps establish causal relationships.
6. Large Sample Sizes: Quantitative studies often require large sample sizes to
ensure the reliability of results and the ability to generalize findings to a

broader population.
7. Replicability: Due to its structured nature, quantitative research can be
replicated in other settings, allowing for the validation of results through
repeated studies.
8. Generalizability: One aim of quantitative research is to produce findings that
can be generalized to larger populations. This is achieved through the
selection of representative samples and the application of standardized
procedures.
Applications of Quantitative Method
Quantitative methods are widely applied across various fields and disciplines
because they provide reliable, objective, and generalizable results. Here are some

prominent applications:
1. Business and Economics
Market Research: Businesses use quantitative methods to understand market
trends, consumer preferences, and buying behaviors, helping them make
informed decisions about product launches, marketing strategies, and pricing.
Financial Analysis: Economists and analysts use quantitative techniques to
predict market movements, assess investment risks, and evaluate economic
policies.
2. Healthcare
Clinical Trials: Quantitative methods are essential in testing the efficacy and
safety of new drugs and medical treatments through controlled experiments
and statistical analysis.
Epidemiology: Researchers employ these methods to understand the patterns,
causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations.
3. Social Sciences
Sociology and Psychology: Quantitative studies help in understanding social
phenomena, measuring attitudes, examining behavioral patterns, and testing
psychological theories.
Political Science: Quantitative analysis is used to gauge public opinion, predict

election outcomes, and study the impact of political policies.

4. Education
Assessment and Evaluation: Educators and policymakers use quantitative
methods to evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs, measure
student performance, and inform educational reforms.
Longitudinal Studies: These studies track students' progress over time,
providing insights into educational outcomes and the long-term effects of
teaching methods.
5. Science and Engineering
Experimental Research: Quantitative methods are fundamental in designing
experiments to test hypotheses about natural and engineered systems.

Statistical Quality Control: Manufacturing industries employ quantitative

techniques to ensure product quality and optimize production processes.
6. Environment and Geography
Environmental Research: Quantitative methods are used to model climate
change scenarios, assess pollution levels, and study the impact of human
activities on ecosystems.
Geographical Information Systems (GIS): These systems use quantitative data

to analyze spatial relationships and patterns for urban planning, resource

management, and environmental conservation.
 Module 2: Quantitative Data Analysis

Introduction
Quantitative data analysis involves various techniques that allow researchers to
derive meaningful insights from numerical data. This process is crucial in validating
hypotheses, exploring relationships between variables, and making informed
decisions based on statistical evidence.

Here’s an overview of the key steps and methods used in quantitative data analysis:
Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis:
Data Collection: Gathering numerical data through surveys, experiments, or
secondary data sources.
Data Cleaning: Removing or correcting inaccurate, incomplete, or irrelevant
data to ensure consistency and reliability in the analysis.
Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing and describing the basic features of the data
using measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and range.
Data Visualization: Using graphs, charts, and plots to visually represent the data,
making it easier to identify patterns, trends, and outliers.

Statistical Testing
Inferential Statistics: Applying statistical tests to infer properties about a
population from the sample data. Common tests include t-tests, chi-square
tests, and ANOVA.
Regression Analysis: Examining relationships between dependent and
independent variables. This can be linear regression for two or multiple
regression for more than two variables.
Interpretation of Results: Drawing conclusions from the data analysis and
deciding how to apply or implement the results.
Reporting: Presenting the findings in a structured format, often accompanied by
charts, graphs, and detailed explanations of the statistical methods used.
Common Quantitative Analysis Methods
Parametric Tests: These assume a normal data distribution and include tests
like t-tests and ANOVA, which are suitable for comparing means or proportions

under certain conditions.

Non-parametric Tests: Used when data do not assume a normal distribution.
Examples include the Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis test, and
Spearman's rank correlation.
Correlational Analysis: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship

between two or more variables using correlation coefficients, such as

Pearson's r.
Factor Analysis: A method used to reduce data complexity by identifying a
smaller number of factors that explain the variance in the data.
Cluster Analysis: Organizing a collection of objects into groups where the
objects within the same group are more alike to each other than to those in
different groups.
Time Series Analysis: Analyzing data points collected or recorded at specific
intervals to forecast future values based on previous patterns.
Advantages of Quantitative Method
Quantitative research methods offer several distinct advantages that make them
particularly valuable across various fields of study and industry applications. Here
are some key benefits:
Objectivity and Reliability: Quantitative research is designed to be objective.
Relying on numerical data and statistical methods minimizes personal biases
and subjectivity when interpreting results, enhancing the reliability and
credibility of the findings.
Precision and Control: Quantitative methods allow researchers to measure
and analyze data highly. Researchers can control variables to establish cause-
and-effect relationships, making it easier to determine the effects of one
variable on another.
 Generalizability: Due to the structured nature of quantitative research and

large sample sizes, findings can often be generalized to a larger population

beyond the sample used in the study. This is particularly useful in making
predictions or conclusions that apply to broader groups.
Statistical Analysis: Statistical tools enable researchers to quantify uncertainty
and make informed judgments about the validity of their results. They also
provide a means to test hypotheses and validate theories rigorously.
Replicability: Quantitative studies are typically designed to be replicable,

which is essential for verifying results and enhancing scientific knowledge.

Other researchers can replicate the methodology and compare their results,
adding to the body of evidence on a topic.
Scalability: Quantitative research can often be scaled up, allowing for the
collection and analysis of large amounts of data. This is advantageous when
broad data collection is feasible and necessary, such as in national surveys or
large-scale social research.
Efficiency: Many quantitative data collection methods, such as surveys and
structured observations, can be administered to many participants
simultaneously without requiring as much time as qualitative methods. Data
analysis can also be automated using software, which speeds up the process
and reduces manpower costs.
Versatility: Quantitative methods can be applied in almost any field of study—

from the hard sciences to the social sciences—and are adaptable to various
data types and research questions. Quantitative methods provide valuable
insights in health research, market analysis, education, or environmental
studies.
Conclusion
Quantitative methods offer a robust framework for analyzing and interpreting
data across various disciplines. From enhancing business decision-making
processes to advancing scientific research, these techniques empower
professionals to derive meaningful insights from complex datasets.
 Module 3: Descriptive Statistics

3.1 Introduction

Statistics is concerned with the scientific method by which information is collected,

organized, analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of description and decision
making.
Examples using statistics are: Hang Seng Index, Life or car insurance rate,
Unemployment rate, Consumer Price Index, etc.

There are two subdivisions of statistical method.

(a) Descriptive Statistics - It deals with the presentation of numerical facts, or data,
in either tables or graphs form, and with the methodology of analyzing the data.
(b) Inferential Statistics - It involves techniques for making inferences about the
whole population on the basis of observations obtained from samples.

3.2 Some Basic Definitions

Population - A population is the group from which data are to be collected.
Sample - A sample is a subset of a population.

Variable - A variable is a feature characteristic of any member of a population

differing in quality or quantity from one member to another.
Quantitative variable - A variable differing in quantity is called quantitative
variable, for example, the weight of a person, number of people in a car.
Qualitative variable - A variable differing in quality is called a qualitative variable
or attribute, for example, color, the degree of damage of a car in an accident.
Discrete variable - A discrete variable is one which no value may be assumed
between two given values, for example, number of children in a family.
Continuous variable - A continuous variable is one which any value may be
assumed between two given values, for example, the time for 100-meter run.
3.3 Method of Data Collection Statistics

Statistics very often involves the collection of data. There are many ways to obtain
data, and the World Wide Web is one of them. The advantages and disadvantages of
common data collecting method are discussed below.

Postal Questionnaire
The principal advantages are:
The apparent low cost compared with other methods although the cost per

useful answer may well be high.

No need for a closely grouped sample as in personal interviews, since the Post
Office is acting as a field force.
There is no interviewer bias.
A considered reply can be given - the respondent has time to consult any
necessary documents.

The principal disadvantages are:

The whole questionnaire can be read before answering (which in some
circumstances it is undesirable).
Spontaneous answers cannot be collected. Only simple questions and
instructions can be given.
The wrong person may complete the form.

Other persons' opinions may be given e.g. by a wife consulting per husband.
No control is possible over the speed of the reply.
A poor "response rate" (a low percentage of replies) will be obtained.
The fact that only simple questions can be asked and the possibility of a poor

response rate are the most serious disadvantages and are the reasons why other
methods will be considered. Only simple questions can be asked because there is
nobody available to help the respondent if they do not understand the question.
The respondent may supply the wrong answer or not bother to answer at all. If a
poor response rate is obtained only those that are interested in the subject may
reply and these may not reflect general opinion. The postal questionnaire has been
used successfully on a number of topics by the Social Survey Unit, and in the U.S.A.

there are a number of market research companies who specialize in this technique.

Telephone Interviewing
The main advantages are :
It is cheaper than personal interviews but tends to be dearer on average than
postal questionnaires.
It can be carried out relatively quick.
Help can be given if the person does not understand the question as worded.
The telephone can be used in conjunction with other survey methods, e.g. for
encouraging replies to postal surveys or making appointments for personal
interviews.
Spontaneous answers can be obtained.

The main disadvantages are:

In some countries not everybody owns a telephone, therefore, a survey carried
out among telephone owners would be biased towards the upper social classes
of the community. But the telephone can be used in industrial market research
anywhere since businesses are invariably on the telephone.
It is easy to refuse to be interviewed on the telephone simply by replacing the
receiver. The response rate tends to be higher than postal surveys but not as
high as when personal interviews are used.
 As in the postal questionnaire, it is not possible to check the characteristics of

the person who is replying, particularly with regard to age and social class.
The questionnaire cannot be too long or too involved.

The Personal Interview

In market research this is by far the most commonly used way of collecting
information from the general public.
Its main advantages are:

A trained person may assess the person being interviewed in terms of age and
social class and area of residence, and even sometimes assess the accuracy of
the information given (e.g. by checking the pantry to see if certain goods are
really there).
Help can be given to those respondents who are unable to understand the
questions, although great care has to be taken that the interview's own feelings
do not enter into the wording of the question and so influence the answers of
the respondents.
A well-trained interviewer can persuade a person to give an interview who
might otherwise have refused on a postal or telephone enquiry, so that a
higher response rate, giving a more representative cross-section of views, is

obtained.
A great deal more information can be collected than is possible by the previous
methods. Interviews of three quarters of an hour are commonplace, and a
great deal of information can be gathered in this time.
Its main disadvantages are:

It is far more expensive than either of the other methods because interviewers
have to be recruited, trained and paid a suitable salary and expenses.
The interviewer may consciously or unconsciously bias the answers to the
question, in spite of being trained not to do so.
Persons may not like to give confidential or embarrassing information at a face
to-face interview.
In general, people may tend to give information that they feel will impress the

interviewer, and show themselves in a better light, e.g. by claiming to read

"quality" newspapers and journals.
There is a possibility that the interviewer will cheat by not carrying out the
interview or carrying out only parts of it. All reputable organizations carry out
quality control checks to lessen the chances of this happening.
Some types of people are more difficult to locate and interview than others,
e.g. travelers. While this may not be important in some surveys, it will be on
others, such as car surveys. One particular problem is that of the working
housewife who is not at home during the day: hence special arrangements have
to be made to carry out interviews in the evenings and at weekends.

Observation
This may be carried out by trained observers, cameras, or closed-circuit television.
Observation may be used in widely different fields; for example, the
anthropologist who goes to live in a primitive society, or the social worker who
becomes a factory worker, to learn the habits and customs of the community they
are observing. Observation may also be used in "before and after" studies, e.g. by
observing the "traffic" flow in a supermarket before and after making changes in
the store layout.
In industry many Work Study techniques are based upon observing individuals or

groups of workers to establish the system of movements they employ with a view
to eliminating wasteful effort. If insufficient trained observers are available, or the
movements are complicated, cameras may be used so that a detailed analysis can
be carried out by running the film repeatedly. Quality control checks and the
branch of market research known as retail audits may also be regarded as
observation techniques.

The advantages of the observational technique are:

The actual actions or habits of persons are observed, not what the persons say
they would do when questioned. It is interesting to note that in one study only
40% of families who stated they were going to buy a new car had actually
bought one when called upon a year later.
Observation may keep the system undisturbed. In some cases, it is undesirable
for people to know an experiment or change is to be made or is taking place to
maintain high accuracy.

The main disadvantages are:

The results of the observations depend on the skill and impartiality of the

observer.
It is often difficult in practice to obtain a truly random sample of persons or
events.
It is difficult to predict future behavior on pure observation.
It is not possible to observe actions which took place before the study was
contemplated.
Opinions and attitudes cannot usually be obtained by observation.
In marketing, the frequency of a person's purchase cannot be obtained by pure
observation. Nor can such forms of behaviour as church-going, smoking and
crossing roads, except by employing a continuous and lengthy (and hence
detectable) period of observation.
Reports and Published Statistics

Information published by international organizations such as the United Nations

Organization gives useful data. Most governments publish statistics of population,
trade, production etc. Reports on specialized topics including scientific research
are published by governments, trade organizations, trade unions, universities,
professional and scientific organizations and local authorities. The World Wide
Web is also an efficient source of obtaining data.

3.4 Primary and Secondary Data

Before considering whether to investigate a data collection exercise at all it is wise
to ascertain whether data which could serve the purpose of the current enquiry is
already available, either within the organization or in a readily accessible form
elsewhere.

When data is used for the purpose for which it was originally collected it is known
as primary data; when it is used for any other purpose subsequently, it is termed
secondary data. For example, if a company Buyer obtains quotations for the price,
delivery date and performance of a new piece of equipment from a number of
suppliers with a view to purchase, then the data as used by the Buyer is primary

data. Should this data later be used by the Budgetary Control department to
estimate price increases of machinery over the past year, then the data is
secondary.

Secondary data may be faced with the following difficulties:

The coverage of the original enquiry may not have been the same as that
required, e.g. a survey of house building may have excluded council built
dwellings.
The information may be out of date, or may relate to different period of the
year to that required. Intervening changes in price, taxation, advertising or
season can and do change people's opinions and buying habits.
 The exact definitions used may not be known, or may simply be different from

those desired, e.g. a company which wishes to estimate its share of the
"fertilizer" market will find that the government statistics included lime under
"fertilizers".
The sample size may have been too small for reliable results, or the method of
selecting the sample a poor one.
The wording of the questions may have been poor, possibly biasing the results.
No control is possible over the quality of the collecting procedure, e.g. by

seeing that measurements were accurate, questions were properly asked and
calculations accurate.

However, the advantage of secondary data, when available and appropriate, is that
a great deal of time and money may be saved by not having to collect the data
oneself. Indeed, in many cases, for example with import-export statistics, it may be
impossible for a private individual or company to collect the data which can only
be obtained by the government.

3.5 Graphical Descriptions of Data

Graphical Presentation

A graph is a method of presenting statistical data in visual form. The main purpose
of any chart is to give a quick, easy-to-read-and-interpret pictorial representation
of data which is more difficult to obtain from a table or a complete listing of the
data. The type of chart or graphical presentation used and the format of its
construction is incidental to its main purpose. A well-designed graphical
presentation can effectively communicate the data's message in a language
readily understood by almost everyone. You will see that graphical methods for
describing data are intuitively appealing descriptive techniques and that they can
be used to describe either a sample or a population, quantitative or qualitative
data sets.
Some basic rules for the construction of a statistical chart are listed below:
Every graph must have a clear and concise title which gives enough identification of the
graph.
Each scale must have a scale caption indicating the units used.
The zero point should be indicated on the co-ordinate scale. If, however, lack of space
makes it inconvenient to use the zero-point line, a scale break may be inserted to indicate
its omission.
Each item presented in the graph must be clearly labelled and legible even in black and
white reprint.

There are many varieties of graphs. The most commonly used graphs are described as below.
Pie chart - Pie charts are widely used to show the component parts of a total. They are
popular because of their simplicity. In constructing a pie chart, the angles of a slice from
the center must be in proportion with the percentage of the total. The following example
of pie charts gives the percentage of education attainment in Hong Kong.

Simple bar chart - The horizontal bar chart is also a simple and popular chart. Like the pie
chart, the simple horizontal bar chart is a one-scale chart. In constructing a bar chart, it is
noted that the width of the bar is not important, but the height of the bar must be in
proportion with the data. The following bar chart gives the monthly household income of
Hong Kong.
Two-directional bar chart - A bar chart can use either horizontal or vertical
bars. A two-directional bar chart indicates both the positive and negative
values. The following example gives the top 5 cities which have the highest/
lowest recorded temperature.

Multiple bar chart - A multiple bar chart is particularly useful if one desires to
make quick comparison between different sets of data. In the following
example, the marital status of male and female in Hong Kong are compared
using multiple bar char.
 Component bar chart - A component bar chart subdivides the bars in different
sections. It is useful when the total of the components is of interest. The
following example gives the nutritive values of food.

Other type of graphs - Graphic presentations can be made more attractive

through the use of careful layout and appropriate symbols. Sometimes
information pertaining to different geographical area can even be presented
through the use of so-called statistical map.
A pictograph illustrates statistical data by means of a pictorial symbol. It can
add greatly to the interest of what might otherwise be a dull subject. The
chosen symbol must have a close association with the subject matter, so that
the reader can comprehend the subject under discussion at a glance.
3.6 Frequency Distribution

Statistical data obtained by means of census, sample surveys or experiments

usually consist of raw, unorganized sets of numerical values. Before these data
can be used as a basis for inferences about the phenomenon under investigation
or as a basis for decision, they must be summarized, and the pertinent information
must be extracted.
Example 1
A traffic inspector has counted the number of automobiles passing a certain point

in 100 successive 20-minute time periods. The observations are listed below.

A useful method for summarizing a set of data is the construction of a frequency

table, or a frequency distribution. That is, we divide the overall range of values
into a number of classes and count the number of observations that fall into each
of these classes or intervals.

The general rules for constructing a frequency distribution are

There should not be too few or too many classes.
Insofar as possible, equal class intervals are preferred. But the first and last
classes can be open-ended to cater for extreme values.
Each class should have a class mark to represent the classes. It is also named
as the class midpoint of the ith class. It can be found by taking simple average
of the class boundaries or the class limits of the same class.
 Setting up the classes - Choose a class width of 5 for each class, then we have

seven classes going from 5 to 9, from 10 to 14, …, and from 35 to 39.

Tallying and counting

Illustrating the data in tabular form

In this example, the class marks of the traffic-count distribution are 7, 12, 17, …, 32
and 37.
 Histogram

A histogram is usually used to present frequency distributions graphically. This is

constructed by drawing rectangles over each class. The area of each rectangle
should be proportional to its frequency.

Notes :
1. The vertical lines of a histogram should be the class boundaries.
2. The range of the random variable should constitute the major portion of the
graphs of frequency distributions. If the smallest observation is far away from
zero, then a 'break' sign ( ) should be introduced in the horizontal axis.

Frequency Polygon
Another method to represent frequency distribution graphically is by a frequency
polygon. As in the histogram, the base line is divided into sections corresponding to
the class-interval, but instead of the rectangles, the points of successive class marks
are being connected. The frequency polygon is particularly useful when two or more
distributions are to be presented for comparison on the same graph.
Frequency Curve
A frequency curve can be obtained by smoothing the frequency polygon.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution and Cumulative Polygon
Sometimes it is preferable to present data in a cumulative frequency distribution,
which shows directly how many of the items are less than, or greater then, various
values.
Example 3

Construct a “Less-than” ogive of the distribution of traffic data.

Cumulative Frequency Curve

A cumulative frequency curve can similarly be drawn.

Relative Frequency

Relative frequency of a class is defined as:

Frequency of the class

Total Frequency

if the frequencies are changed to relative frequencies, then a relative frequency

histogram, a relative frequency polygon and a relative frequency curve can

similarly be constructed. Relative frequency curve can be considered as

probability curve if the total area under the curve be set to 1. Hence the area
under the relative frequency curve between a and b is the probability between

interval a and b.
3.7 Central Tendency
When we work with numerical data, it seems apparent that in most set of data
there is a tendency for the observed values to group themselves about some
interior values; some central values seem to be the characteristics of the data.
This phenomenon is referred to as central tendency. For a given set of data, the
measure of location we use depends on what we mean by middle; different
definitions give rise to different measures. We shall consider some more
commonly used measures, namely arithmetic mean, median and mode. The
formulas in finding these values depend on whether they are ungrouped data or
grouped data.

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic population mean, µ, or simply called mean, is obtained by adding
together all of the measurements and dividing by the total number of
measurements taken. Mathematically it is given as

Arithmetic mean can be used to calculate any numerical data and it is always
unique. It is obvious that extreme values affect the mean. Also, arithmetic mean
ignores the degree of importance in different categories of data.
Example 4
Given the following set of ungrouped data:
20, 18, 15, 15, 14, 12, 11, 9, 7, 6, 4, 1

Find the mean of the ungrouped data.

Median
Median is defined as the middle item of all given observations arranged in order.
For ungrouped data, the median is obvious. In case of the number of
measurements is even, the median is obtained by taking the average of the
middle.
Example 5
The median of the ungrouped data:
20, 18, 15, 15, 14, 12, 11, 9, 7, 6, 4, 1 is

Mode
Mode is the value which occurs most frequently. The mode may not exist, and
even if it does, it may not be unique.
For ungrouped data, we simply count the largest frequency of the given value. If
all are of the same frequency, no mode exits. If more than one values have the
same largest frequency, then the mode is not unique.