BRIDGE ENGINEERING

4 Design Loads
Objective:
The various types of loads applicable to highway bridges are described with reference to the AASHTO
specification. These loads are used in the subsequent chapters to determine the load effects and to
explain the use of these effects in the proportioning of the structure. For loads that are particular
to bridges, background is provided on the development and use of the loads, and in other cases, the
AASHTO provisions are outlined.

1.1 Introduction
Some Basic Definitions:

Load: It is the effect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed deformation
or volumetric change.
Nominal Load: An arbitrary selected design load level.
Load Factor: A coefficient expressing the probability of variations in the nominal load for the
expected service life of the bridge construction.
Force Effects: A deformation or a stress resultant, i.e., thrust, shear, torque/or moment, caused
by applied loads, imposed deformation or volumetric changes.

A structural engineer has to make a structure safe against failures. The reasons for a
structure being susceptible to failures are:

1. The loads that a structure will be called upon to sustain cannot be predicted with
certainty.
2. The strength of the various components cannot be assessed with full assertion.
3. The condition of a structure may deteriorate with time causing it to loose strength.

Loads considered in Bridge analysis are:

1. Gravity Loads
2. Lateral Loads
3. Forces due to deformation
4. Collision Loads

4.2 Gravity Loads

Gravity loads are the loads caused by the weight of an object on the bridge and applied in a
downward direction toward the center of the earth. Such loads are classified into two;
1. Permanent Gravity Loads
2. Transient Gravity Loads

4.2.1 Permanent Gravity Loads

Permanent loads are those that remain on the bridge for an extended period of time,
perhaps for the entire service life.
• Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)
• Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
• Dead load of earth fill (EV)
• Earth pressure load (EH)
• Earth surcharge load (ES)
• Locked-in erection stresses (EL)
• Downdrag (DD)

Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)

The dead load of the structural components and nonstructural attachments are definitely
permanent loads and must be included. Here structural components refer to those elements that are
part of the load resistance system.
Nonstructural attachments refer to such items as curbs, parapets, barrier rails, signs,
illuminators, and guard rails. The weight of such items can be estimated by using the unit weight
of the material combined with the geometry. For third-party attachments, for example, the guard
rail, the manufacture’s literature often contains weight information. In the absence of more precise
information, the unit weights given in Table 4.1 may be used.

Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)

The dead load of the wearing surface (DW) is estimated by taking the
unit weight times the thickness of the surface. This value is combined with
the DC loads per Tables 3.1 and 3.2 [Tables 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2].
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Dead load of earth fill (EV)

The dead load of earth fills (EV) must be considered for buried structures such as culverts.
The EV load is determined by multiplying the unit weight times the depth of materials. Soil–structure
interaction effects may apply.

Earth surcharge load (ES)

The earth surcharge load (ES) is calculated like the EV loads with the only difference being
in the load factors. This difference is attributed to its variability. Note that part or all of the
load could be removed at some time in the future, or perhaps the surcharge material (or loads) could
be changed.

Earth pressure load (EH)

Soil retained by a structure such as a retaining wall, wing wall, or abutment creates a
lateral pressure on the structure. The lateral pressure is a function of the geotechnical
characteristics of the material, the system geometry, and the anticipated structural movements.
Most engineers use models that yield a fluid like pressure against the wall.

Locked-in erection stresses (EL)

Locked-in erection stresses are accumulated force effects resulting from the construction
process. They include secondary forces from post tensioning.

Downdrag (DD)
Downdrag is a force exerted on a pile or drilled shaft due to soil movement around the
element. Such a force is permanent and typically increases with time.

In summary, permanent loads must always be considered in the structural analysis. Some
permanent loads are easily estimated, such as component self-weight, while other loads, such as
lateral earth pressures, are more difficult due to the greater variability involved. Where
variabilities are greater, higher load factors are used for maximum load effects and lower
factors are used for minimum load effects.

Table 4.1 Unit densities

In AASHTO Table 3.5.1-1. From AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Copyright © 2004 by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

4.2.2 Transient Gravity Loads

As the name implies these loads change with time and may be applied from several directions or
locations. Such loads are highly variable.
Transient loads typically include gravity load due to the vehicular, rail or pedestrian traffic
as well as lateral loads such those due to wind, water, ice, etc.
Engineer should be able to depict;
- which of these loads is appropriate for the bridge under consideration.
- magnitude of the loads
- how these loads are applied for the most critical load effect.

For transient load each code has described the following criterion:

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- Design lanes
- Vehicular Design loads
- Fatigue Loads
- Pedestrian Loads
- Deck and Railing Loads
- Multiple Presence
- Dynamic Effects
- Centrifugal Forces

4.2.2.1 DESIGN LANES

Number of lanes a bridge may accommodate must be established. Two such terms are used in the lane
design of a bridge:

1. Traffic lane
2. Design Lane.

Traffic Lane
The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic engineer plans to route
across the bridge. A lane width is associated with a traffic lane and is typically 3.6 m.

Design Lane
Design lane is the lane designation used by the bridge engineer for the live load placement.
The design lane width may or may not be the same as the traffic lane. AASHTO uses a 3m design lane
and the vehicle is to be positioned within that lane for extreme effect.
The number of design lanes is defined by taking the integer part of the ratio of the clear
roadway width divided by 3.6m. The clear width is the distance between the curbs and/or barriers.
In case where the traffic lanes are less than 3.6 m wide, the number of design lanes shall
be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane is taken as the width of
traffic lanes.
For roadway widths from 6 m to 7.2 m, two design lanes should be used, and the design lane
width should be one-half the roadway width.

4.2.2.2 VEHICULAR DESIGN LOADS

A study by the
Transportation Research Board
(TRB) was used as the basis for
the AASHTO loads TRB (1990).
Loads that are above the legal
weight and are /or length
limits but are regularly
allowed to operate were
cataloged. Those vehicles that
were above legal limits but
were allowed to operate
routinely due to grandfathering
provisions are referred to as
‘Exclusion Vehicles’. These
exclusion trucks best represent
the extremes involved in the
present truck traffic. For
analysis, simpler model was
developed which represents the
same extreme load effects as
the exclusion vehicles. This
simpler, more tractable model
is called HL-93 (Highway Load,
developed in 1993).

This model consists of three

different live loads:
1.Design truck
2.Design tandem
3.Design Lane

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Design Truck
According to AASHTO design specifications (1996), the design truck is a model that resembles the
semitrailer truck. as shown in the figure,

Variable Spacing
The variable spacing provide a more satisfactory loading for continuous spans and the heavy
axle loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce maximum –moments. This design truck
has the same configuration since 1944 and is commonly referred to as HS20-44(denoting Highway
Semitrailer 20 tons with year of publication 1944).

Design Tandem
The second configuration is the design tandem and is illustrated in the figure. It consists
of two axles weighing 110kN each spaced at 1.2m.

A tandem can be defined as two closely spaced and mechanically interconnected axles of equal
weight.

Design Lane Load

The third load is the design lane load that consists of a uniformly distributed load of 9.3
N/mm and is assumed to occupy a region 3m transversely. This load is same as uniform pressure of 64
lbs/ft² applied in a 10ft (3m) design lane.
The load of design truck and design tandem must each be superimposed with the load effects
of the design lane load. This combination of load and axle loads is a major deviation from the
requirements of the earlier AASHTO standard specifications where the loads were considered
separately

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COMPARISON OF HS20 & PRESENT TRAFFIC

Kulicki and Mertz (1991) compared the load effects (shear and moments) for one and two span
continuous beams for the previous AASHTO loads and those presently prescribed.
In their study, the HS20 truck and lane loads were compared to the maximum load effect of 22
trucks representative of today's traffic. The ratio of the maximum moments and shear to the HS20
moments is illustrated in figure.
In the figure there is significant variation in the ratios and most ratios are greater than 1,
indicating that the exclusion vehicle maximums are greater than the model load, a nonconservative
situation.

A perfect model would contain ordinates of unity for all span lengths. This model is
practically not possible, but the combination of design truck with the design lane and the design
tandem with the design lane gives improved results, as illustrated in the figure below.
The variation is much less as the ratios are more closely grouped over the span range, for
both moment and shear, and for both simple and continuous spans.
The implication is that the present model adequately represents today's traffic and a single
load factor may be used for all trucks.
As it is quite likely that an exclusion vehicle could be closely followed by another heavily
load truck, it was felt that a third live load combination was required to model this event. This
combination is specified in AASHTO[A3.6.1.3.1] as illustrated in the figure,

For both negative moment (tension on top) between points of contraflexure under a uniform
load on all spans, and reaction at interior supports, 90 percent of the effect of two design trucks
spaced a minimum of 50 ft (15 000 mm) between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the
other truck, combined with 90 percent of the effect of the design lane load. nThe distance between
the 32-kip (145-kN) axles of each truck shall be takennas 14 ft (4300 mm).
Nowak (1993) compared survey vehicles with others in the same lane to the AASHTO load model
and the results are shown in the figure.

In summary three design loads should be considered, the design truck, design tandem and
design lane. These loads are superimposed three ways to yield the live load effects, which are
combined with the other load effects per Tables 3.1 and 3.2. These cases are illustrated in Table
4.2 where the number in the table indicates the appropriate multiplier to be used prior to
superposition.

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Fatigue Loads
A bridge is vulnerable to repeated stressing or fatigue. When the load is cyclic the stress
level is below the nominal yield strength. The fatigue strength typically related to the:
- Range of live load stress
- Number of stress cycles under service load conditions.

Under service load conditions, majority of trucks do not exceed the legal weight limit. So
it would be unnecessary to use the full live load model. Instead it is accommodated by using a
single design truck with the variable axle spacing of 9m and a load factor of 0.75 as prescribed in
Table 3.1.

The number of stress load cycles is based on traffic surveys. In lieu of survey data,
guidelines are provided in AASHTO. The average daily truck traffic (ADTT) in a single lane may be
estimated as

Where p is the fraction of traffic assumed to be in one lane as defined in Table 4.3.

Pedestrian Loads
The AASHTO pedestrian load is 3.6 x 10 -3 MPa, which
is applied to sidewalks that are integral with a roadway
bridge.
If the load is applied on bridge restricted to
pedestrian or bicycle traffic, then a 4.1 x 10-3 MPa is
used.
The railing for pedestrian or bicycle must be
designed for a load of 0.73 N/mm both transversely and
vertically on each longitudinal element in the railing
system.
In addition, as shown in the figure, the railing must
be designed to sustain a single concentrated load of 890 N
applied to the top rail in any direction and at any
location.

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Deck & Railing Load

The deck must be designed for the load effect due to design truck or design tandem, whichever
creates the most extreme effect. The two design vehicles should not be considered together in the
same load case.
The deck overhang, located outside the facia girder and commonly referred to as the cantilever
is designed for the load effect of a uniform line load of 14.6 N/mm located 3m from the face of the
curb or railing as shown in the figure. This load is derived by assuming that one-half of the 50-
kip (220-kN) tandem is distributed over a length of 25 ft (7600 mm).

The design forces for the rail and deck design are
illustrated in Table 4.5 for six test levels
(TL). The levels are described as follows:
TL-1 is used for work zones with low posted speeds
and very low volume, low speed local streets.
TL-2 is used for work zones and most local and
collector roads with favorable site conditions as well
as where a small number of heavy vehicles is expected
and posted speeds are reduced.
TL-3 is used for a wide range of high-speed
arterial highways with very low mixtures of heavy
vehicles and with favorable site conditions.
TL-4 is used for the majority of applications on
high-speed highways, freeways, expressways, and
interstate highways with a mixture of trucks and heavy
vehicles.
TL-5 is used for the
same applications as TL-4 and
where large trucks make up a
significant portion of the
average daily traffic or when
unfavorable site conditions
justify a higher level of
rail resistance.
TL-6 is used for
applications where tanker-
type trucks or similar high
center of gravity vehicles
are anticipated,
particularly along with
unfavorable site conditions.
Multiple Presence
Trucks will be present
in adjacent lanes on roadways
with multiple design lanes
but it is unlikely that three
adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously with the three heavy loads

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Therefore, some adjustment in the design load are necessary. To account for this effect AASHTO
provides an adjustment factor for the multiple presence. A table for these factors is provided.

Dynamic Effects

Dynamics - The variation of any function with respect to time.

Dynamic Effects - The effects i.e., deformation or stress resultant due to the dynamic loads.

Due to the roughness of the road, the oscillation of the suspension system of a vehicle
creates axle forces. These forces are produced by alternate compression and tension of the suspension
system.

This phenomenon which is also known as IMPACT is more precisely referred to as DYNAMIC
LOADING.

These axle forces exceed the static weight during the time the acceleration is upward and is
less than the static weight when the acceleration is downward.

As the dynamic effects are not consistent & is well portrayed by Bakht & Pinjarker (1991 ) &
Paultre (1992 ). It is most common to compare the static & dynamic deflection.

This effect is also called dynamic load factor, dynamic load allowance or impact factor and
is given by,

where
Dsta is the maximum static deflection and
Ddyn is the additional deflection due to the dynamic effects.According to AASHTO
specifications, DLA is illustrated in table 4.7[A3.6.2].

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Paultre(1992) outlines various factors used to increase the static loads to account for
dynamic load effect. The following illustration shows various bridge design specifications from
around the world.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCES

Acceleration is the time

derivative of the velocity vector
and as such results from either a
change of magnitude or direction of
velocity. A truck can increase
speed, decrease speed, and/or change
directions as it moves along a
curvilinear path. All of these
effects require an acceleration of
the vehicle that causes a force
between the deck and the truck.
As a truck moves along a
curvilinear path, the change in the
direction of the velocity causes a
centrifugal acceleration in the
radial direction. This acceleration
is given by,

Where V is the truck speed and r is the radius of curvature of the truck movement.

From Newton’s second law,

We have,

Where Fr is the force on the truck.

Since,

We now have,

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Which is similar to the expression given in AASHTO where,

F= 4/3 is for combinations other than fatigue and is f=1.0 for fatigue; v is the highway
design speed(m/s), R is the radius of the curvature of traffic lane(m), and Fr is applied at the
assumed centre of mass at a distance 1800 mm above the deck surface.

Because the combination of design truck with the design lane load gives a load approximately
four thirds of the effect of the design truck considered independently, a four third factor is used
to model the effect of a train of trucks.

Multiple presence factor may be applied to this force as it is unlikely that all the lanes
will be fully loaded simultaneously.

BRAKING FORCES

Braking forces are significant in bridge loads consideration. This force is transmitted to
the deck and taken into the substructure by the bearings or supports.

This force is assumed to act horizontally at 1800 mm above the roadway surface in either
longitudinal direction.

Here, the multiple presence factor may be applied as it is unlikely that all the trucks in
all the lanes will be at the maximum design level.

The braking force shall be taken as 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or the design
tandem placed in all lanes.

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PERMIT VEHICLES AND MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS

Transportation agencies may include vehicle loads to model characteristics of their particular
jurisdiction.
For example, the Department of Transportation in California (Caltrans) uses a different load
model for their structures as shown in the fig.4.19.
In all such cases, the characteristics of truck loads should be based on survey data. If such
data is not available or achievable, then professional judgment should be used.

4.3 Lateral Loads

Following forces are considered under lateral loads:

- Fluid forces
- Seismic Loads
- Ice Forces

4.3.1 FLUID FORCES

Fluid forces include Water forces and Wind forces.
The force on a structural component due to a fluid flow (water or air) around a component is
established by Bernoulli’s equation in combination with empirically established drag coefficients.

Wind Forces
The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the ground and the upstream terrain
roughness and that is why pressure on a structure is also a function of these parameters. If the
terrain is smooth then the velocity increases more rapidly with elevation.
The minimum wind loading shall not be less than 0.30 kip/ft (4.4 N/mm) in the plane of the
windward chord and 0.15 kip/ft (2.2 N/mm) in the plane of the leeward chord on truss and arch
components, and not less than 0.30 kip/ft (4.4 N/mm) on beam or girder spans [A3.8.1.2.1].
This wind load corresponds to the wind pressure on structures–load combination (WS).
The wind force should be considered from all directions and extreme values are used for
design. Directional adjustments are outlined in AASHTO.
The wind must also be considered on the vehicle. This load is 1.46 N/mm applied at 1.8 m
above the roadway surface.

Water Forces
Water flowing against and around the substructure creates a lateral force directly on the
structure as well as debris that might accumulate under the bridge.

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If the substructure is oriented at an angle to the stream flow, then adjustments must be
made. These adjustments are outlined in the AASHTO.
Scour of the stream bed around the foundation should also be considered as it can result in
the structural failure. AASHTO outlines an extreme limit state for design.

4.3.2 SEISMIC LOADS

Depending on the location of the bridge site, the anticipated earthquake/seismic effects can
govern the design of the lateral load resistance system.

In many cases the seismic loads are not critical and other lateral loads such as wind govern
the design.

Provisions for Seismic Loads

The provision of the AASHTO specifications for seismic design are based on the following
principles:

• Small to moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the elastic range of the structural
components without significant damage.
• Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces are used in the design procedures.
• Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause collapse of all or part of the
bridge. Where possible damage should be readily detectable and accessible for inspection and
repair.

4.3.3 ICE FORCES

Forces produced by ice must be considered when a structural component of a bridge, such as a
pier, is located in water and the climate is cold enough to cause the water to freeze. Due to the
freeze up and break up of ice in different seasons ice forces are produced. These are generally
static which can be horizontal when caused by thermal expansion and contraction or vertical if the
body of water is subject to changes in water level. Relevant provisions are given in AASHTO section
3.9.

4.4 Forces Due to Deformation

In bridge we have to consider the following forces due to deformation:

1. Temperature
2. Creep and Shrinkage
3. Settlement
4.4.1 TEMPERATURE

Two types of temperature changes

must be included in the analysis
of the superstructure.
- Uniform temperature change
- Gradient or non-uniform
temperature change

4.4.1.1 Uniform temperature

change:
In this type of temperature
change, the entire superstructure
changes temperature by a constant
amount. This type of change
lengthens or shortens the bridge
or if the supports are constrained
it will induce reactions at the
bearings and forces in the
structure. This type of
deformation is illustrated in the
figure.

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4.4.1.2 Gradient or Non-uniform temperature change:

In this type the temperature change is gradient or non-uniform heating or cooling of the
superstructure across its depth. Subjected to sunshine, bridge deck heats more than the girder
below. This non-uniform heating causes the temperature to increase more in the top portion of the
system than in the bottom and the girder attempts to bow upward as shown in the figure.

The temperature change is considered as a function of climate. AASHTO defines two climatic
conditions, moderate and cold. Moderate climate is when the number of freezing days per year is
less than 14. A freezing day is when the average temperature is less than 0 C. Table 4.21 gives the
temperature ranges. The temperature range is used to establish the change in temperature used in
the analysis.

4.4.2 CREEP & SHRINKAGE

The effects of creep and shrinkage can have an effect on the structural strength, fatigue and
serviceability.
Creep is considered in concrete where its effects can lead unanticipated serviceability
problems that might lead to secondary strength.
Creep and shrinkage are highly dependent on material and the system involved.

4.4.3 SETTLEMENT
Settlements occur usually due to elastic and inelastic deformation of the foundation. Elastic
deformation includes movements that affect the response of the bridge to other loads but do not
lock in permanent actions. This type of settlement is not a load but rather a support characteristic
that should be included in the structural design. Inelastic deformations are movements that tend to
be permanent and create locked in permanent actions Such movements may include settlement due to
consolidation, instabilities, or foundation failures. Some such movements are the results are the
loads applied to the bridge and these load effects may be included in the bridge design. Other
movements are attributed to the behavior of the foundation independent of the loads applied to the
bridge. These movements are treated as loads and are called imposed support deformations. Imposed
support deformations are estimated based on the geotechnical characteristics of the site and the
system involved. Detailed suggestions are given in AASHTO, section 10.

4.5 Collision Loads

Collision loads include:

- Vessel Collision load

- Rail Collision Load
- Vehicle Collision Load

4.5.1 Vessel Collision load

On bridge over navigable waterways the possibility of vessel collision with the pier must be
considered. Typically, this is of concern for structures that are classified as long span bridges.
Vessel collision loads are classified in AASHTO.

4.5.2 Rail Collision Load

If a bridge is located near a railway, the possibility of collision of the bridge as a result
of a railway derailment exists. As this possibility is remote, the bridge must be designed for
collision forces using extreme limit states.

4.5.3 Vehicle Collision Load

The collision force of a vehicle with the barrier, railing and parapet should be considered
in bridge design.

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REFERENCES

1. Richard M. Barker and Jay A. Puckett, Design of Highway Bridges: An LRFD Approach, Second Edition.
© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-69758-9
2. AASHTO (2004). LRFD Bridge Design Specification, 3rd ed., American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.

PROBLEMS

4.1 What is the definition of exclusion vehicles? Give examples of exclusion vehicles. What role
did exclusion vehicles play in the development of the AASHTO live-load model HL-93?

4.2 What is the purpose in the AASHTO LRFD Specifications of the following factors? Give an example
of each factor.

❑ Multiple presence factor, m

❑ Fraction of truck traffic in a single lane, p

4.3 Determine the minimum longitudinal and transverse connection forces for a simply supported
concrete bridge span of 100 ft with a dead load of 12.0 kips/ft founded on soil type III. At
the location of the bridge the acceleration coefficient A is 0.05. State any assumptions made
of the restraint provided by the connection.

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