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Craft Certificate IN Electrical Engineering Module II

Diploma in electrical engineering (Wote Technical Training Institute)

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CRAFT CERTIFICATE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MODULE II

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES II
Module Unit Summary
No Sub Module Unit Content

1 Instruments and  Essential features of indicating instruments

Measurement  Construction and operation of indicating instruments
 Methods of range extension
 Principles of Wheatstone bridge and DC potentiometer
 Current, Voltage and resistance measurement
 Digital meters
2 Principles of AC  Definition of AC terms
Generation  Basic principles of AC generation
 Types of waveform
3 Alternating Current  Effect of passive elements on current and voltage
(AC) circuits  Calculation series and parallel circuits
 Power in AC Circuits
4 Direct Current (DC)  Effects of inductance on current voltage
Transients  Growth and decay curves in inductive circuits
 Time constants in inductive circuits
 Effects of capacitance on current and voltage
 Growth and decay curves in capacitance circuits
 Time constants in capacitive circuits
 Calculation of DC transients
 Application of time constant in an electric circuit
5 Principles of three  Principles of three phase generation
phase alternating  Three phase connection
current (AC)  Advantages of three phase system over single phase system
generation and  Calculation on three phase balanced system
transmission  Methods of power measurement
 Transmission System

CHAPTER 1: INSTRUMENT AND 1.1 Essential Features of Indicating

MEASUREMENT Instruments
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The indicating instrument essentially the scale will be according to the

consists of moving system pivoted in jewel magnitude of current (or voltage
bearings. A pointer is attached to the moving or power) to be measured.
system which indicates on a graduated scale, (ii) It brings the pointer back to zero
the value of the electrical quantity being position when the deflecting
measured. torque is removed.
i) Deflecting (or operating) torque The controlling torque in indicating
ii) Controlling (or restoring) torque instruments may be provided by one of
iii) Damping torque the following two methods:
Deflecting Torque 1. Spring Control. This is the most
common method of providing
One important requirement in indicating
controlling torque in electrical
instruments is the arrangement for
instruments. A spiral hairspring made of
producing deflecting or operating torque
some non-magnetic material like
(Td) when the instrument is connected in the
phosphor bronze is attached to the
circuit to measure the given electrical
moving system of the instrument as
quantity. This is achieved by utilising the
shown in Fig. 16.1. With the deflection
various effects of electric current or voltage.
of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the
The deflecting torque causes the moving
opposite direction. Since the torsion
system (and hence the pointer attached to it)
torque of a spiral spring is proportional
to move from zero position to indicate on a
to the angle of twist, the controlling
graduated scale the value of electrical
torque is directly proportional to the
quantity being measured.
deflection of the pointer i.e. TC ∝ θ.
Controlling Torque
If deflecting torque were acting alone, the
pointer would continue to move indefinitely
and would swing over to the maximum
deflected position irrespective of the
magnitude of current (or voltage or power)
to be measured. This necessitates to provide
some form of controlling or opposing torque
(TC). This controlling torque should oppose
the deflecting torque and should increase
with the deflection of the moving system.
The pointer will be brought to rest at a
position where the two opposing torques are The pointer will come to rest at a
equal i.e. Td = TC. The controlling torque position where controlling torque TC is
performs two functions: equal to the deflecting torque Td i.e. Td =
TC. For example, in a permanent-magnet
(i) It increases with the deflection of moving coil instrument, the deflecting
the moving system so that the torque is directly proportional to the
final position of the pointer on

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current flowing through the operating vertically downward and therefore

coil i.e. provides no controlling torque. Due to
Td ∝ I gravity, the control weight would tend to
With spring control, TC ∝ θ come to original position (i.e. vertical)
In the final deflected position, Td = and thus provides an opposing or
TC controlling torque. The pointer comes to
∴θ∝I rest at a position where controlling
Since the deflection is directly torque is equal to the deflecting torque.
proportional to I, scale of such an
instrument will be linear (uniform) as
shown in Fig. 16.2.
Advantages
(i) The levelling of the instrument is
not required if the moving parts
are balanced.
(ii) In some instruments (e.g.
permanent-magnet moving coil
and dynamometer type), springs
also serve as the current leads to
the moving coil. In the deflected position shown in Fig.
(iii) There is practically no increase 16.3 (ii), weight W can be resolved into
in the weight of the moving two rectangular components viz W cos θ
system. and W sin θ. Only the component W sin
(iv) In instruments where deflecting θ provides the controlling torque TC.
torque is uniform, spring control ∴ TC = W l sin θ
provides uniform scale. Or TC ∝ sin θ (for fixed W and l)
Thus, the controlling torque is
Disadvantages proportional to the sine of angle of
(i) Change of temperature affects deflection. It may be seen that the value
the spring length and hence the of TC can be varied by changing l i.e. by
controlling torque. changing the position of control weight
(ii) Controlling torque cannot be W on the arm. Taking the case of an
adjusted easily. instrument in which the deflecting
(iii) Accidental stresses in the springs torque is directly proportional to current
may damage them. (e.g. permanent-magnet moving coil
instrument), we have for gravity control,
2. Gravity Control. In this method, a Td ∝ I and TC ∝ sin θ
small adjustable weight W is attached to In the final deflected position, Td =
the moving system [See Fig. 16.3 (i)] TC
which provides the necessary controlling ∴ I ∝ sin θ
torque. In the zero position of the Since I is proportional to the sine of
pointer, the control weight hangs angle of deflection, gravity-controlled

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instruments have non-uniform scales; degrees corresponding to deflecting torque

being crowded at the beginning as of 1.05 × 10–4 kg m [610]
shown in Fig. 16.3 (i).
The torque of an ammeter varies as the
Advantages
square of current through it. If a current of
(i) It is slightly cheaper in
10 A produces a deflection of 90°, what
manufacturing costs than spring
deflection will occur for a current of 5 A
control.
when the instrument is (i) spring-controlled
(ii) It is unaffected by temperature (ii) gravity-controlled [22.50, 14.50]
variations.
(iii) It is not subjected to fatigue. Damping Torque
(iv) The controlling torque can be If the moving system is acted upon by
changed easily. deflecting and controlling torques alone,
Disadvantages then pointer, due to inertia, will oscillate
(i) The instrument has to be kept in about its final deflected position for quite
vertical position. some time before coming to rest. The
(ii) The control weight increases the position of the pointer when stationary is,
weight of the moving system. therefore, not affected by damping.
(iii) Gravity-controlled instruments
The degree of damping decides the
have non-uniform scale.
behaviour of the moving system. If the
instrument is under-damped, the pointer will
oscillate about the final position for some
time before coming to rest. On the other
hand, if the instrument is over-damped, the
pointer will become slow and lethargic. Fig.
16.4 shows graph for under-damping, over
damping and critical damping (dead-beat).
The damping torque in indicating
instruments can be provided by
(i) Air-friction
(ii) Fluid friction
(iii) Eddy currents.

Exercise
In a gravity-controlled instrument, the
controlling weight is 0.005 kg and acts at a
distance of 2.4 cm from the axis of the
moving system. Determine the deflection in

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(ii) Fluid friction damping.

In this method, discs or vanes attached to the
spindle of the moving system are kept
immersed in a pot containing oil of high
viscosity (See Fig. 16.7). As the pointer
moves, the friction between the oil and
vanes opposes the motion of the pointer and
thus necessary damping is provided. In
general, fluid friction damping is not
employed in indicating instruments,
although one can find its use in Kelvin
electrostatic voltmeter.
(i) Air friction damping.
Two arrangements of air friction damping
are shown in Fig. 16.5 and Fig. 16.6. In the
arrangement shown in Fig. 16.5, a light
aluminum piston is attached to the spindle
that carries the pointer and moves with a
very little clearance in a rectangular or
circular air chamber closed at one end. This
method is not favoured these days and the (iii) Eddy current damping.
one shown in Fig. 16.6 (i) is preferred.
Eddy current damping is the most efficient
The arrangement shown in Fig. 16.6 (ii) is form of damping. Two methods of eddy
widely used. In this method, one or two light current damping are shown in Fig. 16.8 and
aluminium vanes are attached to the same Fig. 16.9. In Fig. 16.8, a thin aluminum or
spindle that carries the pointer. The pressure copper disc attached to the moving system is
of compressed air in the vanes provides the allowed to pass between the poles of a
necessary damping force to reduce the permanent magnet.. These eddy currents
tendency of the pointer to oscillate. react with the field of the magnet to produce
a force which opposes the motion (Lenz’s
Law). In this way, eddy currents provide the
damping torque to reduce the oscillations of
the pointer.

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In Fig. 16.9, the operating coil (i.e. the coil The damping torque is provided by eddy
which produces the deflecting torque) is currents induced in the aluminium former as
wound on the aluminium former. As the coil the coil moves from one position to another.
moves in the field of the instrument, eddy
currents are induced in the aluminium
former to provide the necessary damping
torque.
1.2 Construction and Operation of
Indicating Instruments
Moving Coil Instrument
These instruments are used either as
ammeters or voltmeters and are suitable for Working.
d.c. work only. This type of instrument is When the instrument is connected in the
based on the principle that when a current circuit to measure current or voltage, the
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic operating current flows through the coil.
field, mechanical force acts on the Since the coil is carrying current and is
conductor. The coil placed in the magnetic placed in the magnetic field of the
field and carrying the operating current is permanent magnet, a mechanical torque acts
attached to the moving system. With the on it. As a result, the pointer attached to the
movement of the coil, the pointer moves moving system moves in a clockwise
over the scale to indicate the electrical direction over the graduated scale to indicate
quantity being measured. This type of the value of current or voltage being
movement is known as D’Arsonval measured. Consequently, the pointer will try
movement. to deflect below zero. Deflection in this
Construction. direction (i.e. reverse direction) is prevented
by a spring “stop”. Since the deflecting
Fig. 16.11 shows the various parts of a torque reverses with the reversal of current
permanent-magnet moving coil instrument. in the coil, such instruments can be used to
It consists of a light rectangular coil of many measure direct currents and voltages only.
turns of fine wire wound on an aluminium
former inside which is an iron core as shown
in Fig. 16.11 (i). The coil is delicately
pivoted upon jewel bearings and is mounted
between the poles of a permanent horse-shoe
magnet. Attached to these poles are two
soft-iron pole pieces which concentrate the
magnetic field. The current is led into and
out of the coil by means of two control hair-
springs, one above and the other below the
coil, as shown in Fig. 16.11 (ii). These
springs also provide the controlling torque.

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Deflecting torque. (v) External stray fields have little

effect on the readings as the
The magnetic field in the air gap is radial
operating magnetic field is very
due to the presence of soft-iron core. This
strong.
means that conductors of the coil will
(vi) Very accurate and reliable.
always move at right angles to the field.
Disadvantages
When current is passed through the coil,
(i) Such instruments cannot be used
forces act on its both sides which produce
for a.c. measurements.
the deflecting torque. Referring to Fig.
(ii) About 50% more expensive than
16.12, let,
moving-iron instruments because
B = flux density in Wb/m2
of their accurate design.
l = length or depth of coil in m
(iii) Some errors are caused due to
b = breadth of coil in m
variations (with time or
N = No. of turns in the coil
temperature) either in the
If a current of I amperes flows in the coil,
strength of permanent magnet or
then force acting on each coil side is given
in the control springs.
by;
Applications.
Force on each coil side, F = BIl N newtons
The chief applications of such
Deflecting torque, Td = Force ×
instruments are:
perpendicular distance = (BIlN) × b
(i) In the measurement of direct
∴ Td = BINA newton-metre
currents and voltages.
Where A (=b × l) is area of the coil in m2.
(ii) In d.c. galvanometers to detect
Since the values of B, N and A are fixed,
small currents.
∴ Td ∝ I
(iii) In ballistic galvanometers used
The instrument is spring-controlled so that
mainly for measuring changes of
TC ∝ θ. The pointer will come to rest at a
magnetic flux linkages.
position where Td = TC.
∴θ∝I
Thus, the deflection is directly proportional
to the operating current. Hence, such
instruments have uniform scale.
Advantages
(i) Uniform scale i.e., evenly
divided scale.
(ii) Very effective eddy current
damping because the aluminium
former moves in an intense
magnetic field of the permanent
magnet.
(iii) High efficiency as it requires
very little power for its operation.
(iv) No hysteresis loss as the
magnetic flux is practically
constant.
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Attraction Type
Fig. 16.36 shows the constructional details
of an attraction type moving-iron
instrument. It consists of a cylindrical coil or
solenoid which is kept fixed. An oval-
shaped soft-iron is attached to the spindle in
such a way that it can move in and out of the
coil. A pointer is attached to the spindle so
that it is deflected with the motion of the
soft-iron piece. The controlling torque is
provided by one spiral spring arranged at the
top of the moving element. In some
instruments, damping is provided by the
movement of a piston inside the curved
chamber [See Fig. 16.37]; the piston being
attached to the spindle.

Exercise
The coil of a moving coil permanent magnet
voltmeter is 40 mm long and 30 mm wide and has
100 turns on it. The control spring exerts a torque of
120 × 10–6 Nm when the deflection is 100 divisions
on full-scale. If the flux density of the magnetic field
in the air-gap is 0.5 Wb/m2 , estimate the resistance
that must be put in series with the coil to give one Working.
volt per division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil When the instrument is connected in the
may be neglected. circuit to measure current or voltage, the
[50 kΩ]
operating current flowing through the coil
Moving Iron sets up a magnetic field. In other words, the
This type of instrument is principally used coil behaves like a magnet and therefore it
for the measurement of alternating currents attracts the soft-iron piece towards it. The
and voltages, though it can also be used for result is that the pointer attached to the
d.c. measurements. There are two types of moving system moves from zero position.
moving-iron instruments. The pointer will come to rest at a position
(i) Attraction type where deflecting torque is equal to the
(ii) Repulsion type controlling torque. If current in the coil is
Consequently, repulsion takes place between reversed, the direction of magnetic field also
the vanes and the movable vane causes the reverses and so does the magnetism
pointer to move over the scale. In case the produced in the soft-iron piece. Hence, the
instrument is to be used as an ammeter, the direction of the deflecting torque remains
coil has a fewer turns of thick wire so that unchanged. For this reason, such
the ammeter has low resistance–a desirable instruments can be used for both d.c. and
requirement. a.c. measurements.

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Deflecting torque. edges of the vanes are of the same polarity,

The force F pulling the soft-iron piece the two vanes repel each other. As the fixed
towards the coil is directly proportional to: vane cannot move, the movable vane
deflects and causes the pointer to move from
zero position. The pointer will come to rest
at a position where deflecting torque is equal
to the controlling torque provided by the
spring. If the current in the coil is reversed,
the direction of deflecting torque remains
unchanged. For this reason, such
instruments can be used for both d.c. and
a.c. applications.

Repulsion Type
Fig. 16.38 (i) shows the constructional
details of a repulsion type moving iron
instrument. It consists of two soft-iron
pieces or vanes surrounded by a fixed
cylindrical hollow coil which carries the Deflecting Torque
operating current. One of these vanes is The deflecting torque results due to the
fixed and the other is free to move as shown repulsion between the similarly charged
in Fig. 16.38 (ii). The movable vane is of soft-iron pieces or vanes. If the two pieces
cylindrical shape and is mounted axially on develope pole strengths of m1 and m2
a spindle to which a pointer is attached. The respectively, then,
fixed vane, which is wedge-shaped and has a
larger radius, is attached to the stationary
coil. The controlling torque is provided by
one spiral spring at the top of the instrument.
It may be noted that in this instrument,
springs do not provide the electrical
connections. Damping is provided by air
friction due to the motion of a piston in an
air chamber.
In a moving-iron instrument, soft-iron vane
Working.
moves in the magnetic field set up by the
When current to be measured or current
operating current in the instrument coil.
proportional to the voltage to be measured
Therefore, self-inductance (L) of the
flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
instrument coil changes with the position of
set up by the coil. This magnetic field
the moving iron i.e. coil inductance changes
magnetises the two vanes in the same
with deflection q. Suppose at any instant, the
direction i.e., similar polarities are
alternating current flowing through the coil
developed at the same ends of the vanes as
is i.
shown in Fig. 16.38 (iii). Since the adjacent

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Advantages
(i) These are less expensive,
robust and simple in
construction.
(ii) These can be used for both
d.c. and a.c. measurements.
However, when used with
d.c., they are liable to small
This expression for deflecting torque applies errors due to residual
equally to direct currents. It is clear that magnetism.
deflecting torque in a moving-iron (iii) These instruments have high
instrument is operating torque.
(i) Directly proportional to the (iv) These instruments are
square of current through the reasonably accurate.
coil. Disadvantages
(ii) Directly proportional to dL/dq (i) These instruments have non-
i.e. change of inductance of coil linear scales.
with deflection q. (ii) These instruments are not as
Sources of Errors in Moving Iron sensitive as the permanent-
(i) Errors due to hysteresis. magnet moving coil
Since the iron parts move in the magnetic instruments.
field, hysteresis loss occurs in them. The (iii) Errors are introduced due to
effect of this error is that the readings are change in frequency in case
higher when current increases than when it of a.c. measurements.
decreases. This error can be reduced by Applications.
employing vanes of mumetal and by The moving-iron instruments are
working it over a low range of flux primarily used for a.c. measurements
densities. viz., alternating currents and voltages.
(ii) Error due to stray fields. They are not used to measure direct
Since the operating field is comparatively currents and voltages because their
weak (say 7 × 10–3 Wb/m2 ), such characteristics are inferior to permanent-
instruments are readily affected by stray magnet moving coil instruments.
fields. This may give rise to wrong readings.
This error can be reduced by enclosing the Ohmmeter
movement in an iron case. A device that measures the resistance
(iii) Error due to temperature. directly is called an ohmmeter. The
Change of temperature affects the simplest direct reading ohmmeter is the
instrument resistance and stiffness of the basic series ohmmeter circuit shown in
control spring. Fig. 16.103 (i). It consists of a
(iv) Error due to friction. permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
Due to the friction of moving parts, a slight instrument in series with a battery and a
error may be introduced. This can be rheostat R. Note that A and B are the
avoided by making torque-weight ratio high. terminals of ohmmeter.

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Thermocouple
The hot-wire instruments are obsolete and
have been superseded by thermocouple
instruments. A thermocouple instrument
(i) With terminals A and B shorted consists of:
together, R is adjusted for full- (i) a permanent-magnet moving coil
scale deflection (f.s.d.). Since instrument
terminals A and B are shorted, (ii) A thermo-element i.e., an
the ohmmeter should read zero evacuated glass bulb containing a
resistance. Thus as shown in Fig. heater wire and a thermocouple
16.103 (ii), the full-scale whose active junction J is in
deflection should read zero contact with the heater as shown
resistance. in Fig. 16.43.
Full-scale deflection current, Ig When operating current flows through the
= E/R (neglecting meter heater, the heat produced is applied to the
resistance) active junction J of the thermocouple. Due
(ii) When terminals A and B are to thermo-electric effect, a direct voltage
open-cricuited, the pointer should (directly proportional to the heat) appears
indicate infinity. Therefore, zero across the cool ends 1 and 2 of the
deflection point on the scale is thermocouple. The permanent-magnet
marked as infinite resistance. moving coil instrument connected across
[See Fig. 16.103 (ii)]. ends 1 and 2 will give the indication of the
(iii) When an unknown resistance Rx current flowing in the line. Since the heating
is connected to terminals A and effect in a resistance (i.e., heater in this case)
B, the meter current Im is is independent of current direction,
thermocouple instruments can be used for
both d.c. and a.c. measurements.
Since the value of Im is more
than zero and less than Ig (f.s.d.),
the meter will give a reading
between zero and infinity. Thus
the value of unknown resistance
Rx can be determined.

As the amount of direct voltage (called

thermo-e.m.f.) appearing across the cold
ends of the thermocouple is directly
proportional to the heating effect (I2R) at the
active junction J, the deflection is directly
proportional to the square of current

Scale. It may be seen that scale of such an

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instrument is of square-law type i.e., instrument which gives fsd for currents of
crowded in the beginning and open near the only a few milliamperes. When an ammeter
end of the scale. The scale can be modified is required to measure currents of larger
to a uniform type by changing the shape of magnitude, a proportion of the current is
the pole pieces of the moving-coil meter as diverted through a low-value resistance
shown is Fig. 16.44. Consequently, the connected in parallel with the meter. Such a
deflecting torque increases which makes the diverting resistor is called a shunt.
meter more sensitive during the initial
portion of the scale. This decreases the
deflecting torque and hence the sensitivity of
the meter for that portion of the scale. The
effect of this arrangement is that the scale of
the meter tends to change from square-law
relation to the linear one. Fig 3.2
Range extension. A thermo-couple meter
may be used to measure direct as well as From Fig 3.2 (a), VPQ = VRS
alternating currents and voltages. Their
Hence, I a r a=I s R s thus the value of shunt
ranges may be extended through the use of
shunts or voltage multipliers. I a ra
Applications. The most useful application is R s= ohms
Is
in high-frequency circuits (e.g., radio work)
because the forces operating the pointer are The milliammeter is converted into a
practically independent of frequency. The voltmeter by connecting a high value
moving-iron or dynamometer instruments resistance (called a multiplier) in series with
will be simply useless in such situations. it as shown in Fig 3.2 (b);
The thermocouple meter is normally V =V a+ V M =IR a + IR M Thus the value of
employed for accurate measurement of
multiplier is,
radio-frequency aerial and feeder currents.
V −Ir a
R M= ohms
1.3 Methods of Range Extension I
Shunts and multipliers
Instrument Transformers
An ammeter, which measures current, has a
low resistance (ideally zero) and must be For measuring a large current in a d.c.
connected in series with the circuit. A circuit, we use low-range ammeter with a
voltmeter, which measures p.d., has a high suitable shunt. The measurement of high d.c.
resistance (ideally infinite) and must be voltage is made using a low-range voltmeter
connected in parallel with the part of the with a multiplier. In order to measure high
circuit whose p.d. is required. alternating currents and voltages, we employ
specially designed transformers, called
There is no difference between the basic instrument transformers. These transformers
instrument used to measure current and facilitate the a.c. measurements with low-
voltage since both use a milliammeter as range a.c. instruments. There are two types
their basic part. This is a sensitive of instrument transformers

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Current Transformer Potential Transformer

A current transformer (C.T.) is used to Potential transformer (P.T.) is used to
measure high alternating current in a power measure high alternating potential difference
system. The primary of this transformer has (voltage) in a power system. The primary of
a few turns of thick wire whereas the this transformer has many turns while the
secondary has many turns of very fine wire secondary has few turns as shown in Fig.
as shown in Fig. 16.105. 16.107.

The primary of the current transformer is The primary of the potential transformer is
connected in series with the line whose connected across the high-voltage line
current is to be measured. The secondary of whose voltage is to be measured. A low-
the transformer is connected across a low- range (0-110 V) a.c. voltmeter is connected
range (0 –5A) a.c. ammeter. The line current across the secondary. The line voltage (VP)
(IP) and a.c. ammeter current (IS) are and a.c. voltmeter voltage (VP) are related
as:

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Example 16.35. A non-inductive coil AB is An electrostatic voltmeter has two parallel

connected across 440 V mains and an plates. The movable plate is 10 cm in
electrostatic voltmeter of negligible diameter. With 10 kV between the plates,
capacitance is connected across a portion the pull is 0.005 N. Find the change in
CD of this coil. The resistance of the coil capacitance for a movement of 1 mm of the
AB is 8000 Ω and that of portion CD is movable plates. Solution. Force F between
2000 Ω. Find (i) the reading of the voltmeter the charged pl
and (ii) multiplying factor. [0.103 pF]

1.4 Wheatstone Bridge and DC

Potentiometer
This bridge was first proposed by
Wheatstone (an English telegraph engineer)
for measuring accurately the value of an
unknown resistance. It consists of four
resistors (two fixed known resistances P and
Q, a known variable resistance R and the
unknown resistance X whose value is to be
found) connected to form a diamond-shaped
circuit ABCDA as shown in figure below

Exercise
An electrostatic voltmeter is constructed
with six parallel, semi-circular fixed plates
equi-spaced at 4 mm intervals and five The values of P and Q are properly fixed.
interleaved semi-circular movable plates that The value of R is varied such that on closing
move in planes mid-way between the fixed the key K, there is no current through the
plates in air. The instrument is spring galvanometer. Under such conditions, the
controlled. If the radius of the movable bridge is said to be balanced.
plates is 4 cm, calculate the spring constant Let I1 and I2 be the currents through P and
if 10 kV corresponds to full-scale deflection R respectively when the bridge is balanced.
of 100°. Neglect fringing, edge effects and
plate thickness.
[1.07 mNm/rad]

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D.C. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a device used to measure
the e.m.f. of a voltage source or p.d.
between two points in an electrical circuit. It
basically measures the potential difference
but on this basis, it can be used to make
Note. When the bridge is balanced, VB = several other measurements. A
VD so the voltage across galvanometer is potentiometer uses null point method
zero i.e. VBD = VB – VD = 0. When there (described below) and has the advantage of
is zero voltage across the galvanometer, being able to measure the potential
there is also zero current though the difference of a source without drawing any
galvanometer. Consequently, in a balanced current from it. Hence it can be used to
Wheatstone bridge, galvanometer can be measure the e.m.f. of a source directly.
replaced by either a short circuit or an open
circuit without affecting the voltages and
currents anywhere else in the circuit.
Example
In a Wheatstone bridge ABCD, a
galvanometer is connected between A and
C, and a battery between B and D. A resistor
of unknown value is connected between A
and B. When the bridge is balanced, the
resistance between B and C is 100Ω, that
between C and D is 10Ω and that between D
and A is 400Ω. Calculate the value of the
unknown resistance.

Example
In a d.c. potentiometer, balance is obtained
at a length of 400 mm when using a standard
cell of 1.0186 volts. Determine the e.m.f. of
a dry cell if balance is obtained with a length
of 650 mm

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1.5 Digital Multimeters CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES OF AC

GENERATION
Instruments are manufactured that combine
a moving coil meter with a number of shunts 2.1 Definition of AC terms
and series multipliers, to provide a range of
Waveform. The shape of the curve obtained
readings on a single scale graduated to read
by plotting the instantaneous values of
current and voltage. If a battery is
voltage or current as ordinate against time.
incorporated then resistance can also be
measured. Such instruments are called Instantaneous value. The value of an
multimeters or universal instruments or alternating quantity at any instant is called
multirange instruments. A particular range instantaneous value. The instantaneous
may be selected either by the use of separate values of alternating voltage and current are
terminals or by a selector switch. Only one represented by v and i respectively.
measurement can be performed at a time.
Often such instruments can be used in ac as Cycle. One complete set of positive and
well as dc circuits when a rectifier is negative values of an alternating quantity is
incorporated in the instrument. known as a cycle.

Digital Multimeters (DMM) are now almost Alternation. One-half cycle of an

universally used, the Fluke Digital alternating quantity is called an alternation.
Multimeter being an industry leader for An alternation spans 180º electrical.
performance, accuracy, resolution, Time period. The time taken in seconds to
ruggedness, reliability and safety. These complete one cycle of an alternating
instruments measure dc currents and quantity is called its time period. It is
voltages, resistance and continuity, ac (rms) generally represented by T.
currents and voltages, temperature, and
much more. Frequency. The number of cycles that occur
in one second is called the frequency (f) of
the alternating quantity. It is measured in
cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz).
Amplitude. The maximum value (positive
or negative) attained by an alternating
quantity is called its amplitude or peak
value.

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2.2 Basic Principles of AC Generation

An alternating voltage may be generated:
(i) By rotating a coil at constant angular
velocity in a uniform magnetic field as
shown in Figure
(ii) By rotating a magnetic field at a constant
angular velocity within a stationary coil as
shown in Figure.
In either case, the generated voltage will be
of sinusoidal waveform. The magnitude of
generated voltage will depend upon the
number of turns of coil, the strength of
magnetic field and the speed of rotation. The
first method is used for small a.c. generators
while the second method is employed for
large a.c. generators.

2.3 Types of AC Waveforms

If values of quantities which vary with time t
are plotted to a base of time, the resulting
graph is called a waveform.

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CHAPTER 3: ALTERNATING
CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS
Purely Capacitive Passive Components
2.1 Effect of Passive Elements on Current
Capacitor – The capacitor is a component
and Voltage
which has the ability or “capacity” to store
A passive element is one which receives energy in the form of an electrical charge
electrical energy and then either converts it like a small battery. The capacitance value
into heat (resistance) or stores in an electric of a capacitor is measured in Farads, F. At
field (capacitance) or magnetic field DC a capacitor has infinite (open-circuit)
(inductance). impedance, ( XC ) while at very high
frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance
Passive Components in AC Circuits
(short-circuit).

Where: R is resistance, C is capacitance

and L is inductance.
Purely Resistive Passive Components
Resistor – Resistors regulate, impede or set Purely Inductive Passive Components
the flow of current through a particular path
Inductor – An inductor is a coil of wire that
or impose a voltage reduction in an
induces a magnetic field within itself or
electrical circuit as a result of this current
within a central core as a direct result of
flow. Resistors have a form of impedance
current passing through the coil. The
which is simply termed resistance, (R) with
inductance value of an inductor is measured
the resistive value of a resistor being
in Henries, H. At DC an inductor has zero
measured in Ohms, Ω. Resistors can be of
impedance (short-circuit), while at high
either a fixed value or a variable value
frequencies an inductor has infinite (open-
(potentiometers).
circuit) impedance, ( XL ).

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Passive Components in Series AC

Circuits
Passive components in AC circuits can be
connected together in series combinations to
form RC, RL and LC circuits as shown.
Series RC Circuit

Passive Components in Parallel AC

Circuits
Passive components in AC circuits can also
be connected together in parallel
combinations to form RC,
RL and LC circuits as shown.
Series RL Circuit
Parallel RC Circuit

Series LC Circuit

Parallel RL Circuit

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Parallel LC Circuit

Parallel RLC Circuit

Passive RLC Circuits

All three passive components in AC circuits
can also be connected together in both We have seen above that passive
series RLC and parallel RLC combinations components in AC circuits behave very
as shown below. differently than when connected in a DC
circuit due to the influence of frequency,
Series RLC Circuit
( ƒ ). In a purely resistive circuit, the current
is in-phase with the voltage. In a purely
capacitive circuit the current in the capacitor

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leads the voltage by 90o and in a purely

inductive circuit the current lags the voltage
by 90o.
The opposition to current flow through a
passive component in an AC circuit is
called: resistance, R for a
resistor, capacitive reactance, XC for a
capacitor and inductive reactance, XL for
an inductor. The combination of resistance
and reactance is called Impedance.
In a series circuit, the phasor sum of the
voltages across the circuits components is
equal to the supply voltage, VS. In a parallel
circuit, the phasor sum of the currents
flowing in each branch and therefore
through each of the circuits components is
equal to the supply current, IS.
For both parallel and series connected RLC
circuits, when the supply current is “in-
phase” with the supply voltage the
circuit resonance occurs as XL = XC. A
Series Resonance Circuit is known as
an Acceptor Circuit. A Parallel Resonance
Circuit is known as a Rejecter Circuit.

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