Module 2 Unit 2 : Learner- Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Introduction
The core element in the teaching and learning process is “you as the learner”.
The entire instruction inside and outside the classroom, whether online, offline, or
blended platforms of teaching and learning modalities, revolves around you. This
module focuses on the fourteen (14) psychological principles in a learner – centered
teaching environment.
Learning Outcomes
It is expected that you can perform the following competencies after learning
the contents of this unit:
1. Discuss the 14 Learner- Centered Psychological principles;
2. Contextualize the 14 LCPs;
3.Develop learner – centered principles in each category of the LCPs; and
4. Advocate the use and significance of the 14 principles in the teaching- learning
Process.

Learning Contents
In this module, you are going to learn the following topic and sub – topics:
1. The 14 Learner – Centered Psychological Principles
1.1 Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1.2 Motivation and Affective Factors
1.3 Developmental Factors
1.4 Individual Differences Factors

Teaching and Learning Activities

1.1 Teaching Activities

“A good teacher is one who makes himself progressively unnecessary”.~Thomas Carruthers

The Learner-Centered Principles as a Framework

Education is one of many complex living systems that function to support
particular human needs (cf. Wheatley, 1999). Such systems are by their nature
unpredictable but can be understood in terms of principles that define human needs,
cognitive and motivational processes, development and individual differences. The
research-validated Learner Centered Psychological Principles (APA, 1993, 1997)
provide a knowledge base for understanding learning and motivation as natural
processes that occur when the conditions and context of learning are supportive of
individual learner needs, capacities, experiences, and interests. Attention to this
knowledge base about learners and learning is central to defining the personal domain
of educational systems. This domain focuses on the human processes and on personal
and interpersonal relationships, beliefs, and perceptions that are affected by and/or
supported by the educational system as a whole. The foundation of the research-
validated learner-centered principles is essential to designing technology-supported
practices that attend holistically and systemically to the needs of all learners.

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Beginning in 1990, the American Psychological Association (APA) appointed a
special Task Force on Psychology in Education, one of whose purposes was to
integrate research and theory from psychology and education in order to surface
general principles that have stood the test of time and can provide a framework for
school redesign and reform. The result was a document that originally specified twelve
fundamental principles about learners and learning that, taken together, provide an
integrated perspective on factors influencing learning for all learners (APA, 1993). This
document was revised in 1997 (APA, 1997) and now includes 14 principles that are
essentially the same as the original 12 principles with the exception that attention is now
given to principles dealing with diversity and standards
What is “learner – centered?
From an integrated and holistic look at the Principles, the following definition
emerges:

 "Learner centered" is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners -

their heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests,
capacities, and needs - with a focus on leaning - the best available knowledge
about learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices that are most
effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning, and achievement
for all learners. This dual focus then informs and drives educational decision
making. Learner-centered is a reflection in practice of the Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles - in the programs, practices, policies, and people that
support learning for all.

This definition of learner-centered is thus based on an understanding of the

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles as a representation of the current knowledge
base on learners and learning. The Principles apply to all learners, in and outside of
school, young and old. Learner-centered is also related to the beliefs, characteristics,
dispositions, and practices of teachers - practices primarily created by the teacher.
When teachers and their practices function from an understanding of the knowledge
base delineated in the Principles, they (a) include learners in decisions about how and
what they learn and how that learning is assessed; (b) value each learner's unique
perspectives; (c) respect and accommodate individual differences in learners'
backgrounds, interests, abilities, and experiences; and (d) treat learners as co-creators
and partners in the teaching and learning process.

 "Learner-centered" (Darling-Hammond, 1996; Sparks & Hirsh, 1997) refer to

learning new beliefs and new visions of practice that are responsive to and
respectful of the diverse needs of students and teachers as learners. This means
that all learning, including that for students and teachers, must include strategies
that support diverse learner needs and perspectives, provide time for critical
reflection, and opportunities for teachers to co-create practices with their
students that enhance learning, motivation and achievement. For Sparks and
Hirsh and others, this view of "learner-centered" is a research-validated paradigm
shift that transforms education - including how best to use technology to support
the new vision.
 "Learner-centeredness" is not solely a function of particular instructional
practices or programs (McCombs & Lauer, 1997; McCombs & Whisler, 1997).
Rather, it is a complex interaction of qualities of the teacher in combination with
characteristics of instructional practices - as perceived by individual learners.
That is, "learner-centeredness" is in "the eye of the beholder" and varies as a
function of learner perceptions which, in turn, are the result of each learner's prior
experiences, self-beliefs, and attitudes about schools and learning as well as
their current interests, values, and goals. Thus applications and assessments
of educational technology must consider student perceptions that their
personal and interpersonal needs are being met.

What are the 14 learner-Centered Psychological Principles?

The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four (4) domains as

shown in the figure below:

COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

LEARNER-CENTERED
MOTIVATION DEVELOP-
PSYCHOLOGICAL
AND AFFECTIVE MENTAL
PRINCIPLES FACTORS
FACTORS

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTORS
 The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning
process. They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than biological factors. However, the principles also attempt
to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these
internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective,
developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners-from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our
educational system.

I. Cognitive and metacognitive Factors

Throughout its history, psychology has provided vital information for the design of
schooling based on theory and research on human learning, development, and
motivation. Research in psychology relevant to education has been particularly
informative during the past decade. Advances in our understanding of thinking, memory,
and cognitive and motivational processes can contribute directly to improvements in
teaching, learning, and the whole enterprise of schooling. At the same time, educators
concerned with the growing problems of school dropout, low levels of academic
achievement, and other indicators of school failure are arguing for more learner-
centered models of schooling. Such models attend to the diversity among students, and
use this diversity to enrich learning and to produce results within the context of current
school reform.

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes; for example, habit formation in
motor learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills,
and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional
processes that students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences,
and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-
regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To
construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must
generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals and
learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by
filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject
matter so that they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can assist learners in
creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these
links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing
knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject
areas and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless
new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and
understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in
new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist
learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have
been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as correct mapping
and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply
their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of
strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by
receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in
developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or
methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful
learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or
timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their
goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that
focus on helping learners develop this higher order (metacognitive) strategies can
enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students
can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation
toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be
appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning
and thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it
is nurturing or not, can also has significant impacts on student learning.

II. Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success
or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing. Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning
have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also
influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an
individual’s motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance
motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance
learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task.
However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and relative
thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice of control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic
needs to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated
on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful,
appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they
believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are
comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators
can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by
attending to individual differences in learners’ perception of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation and effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion. Effort is another main indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition
of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner
energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need to be
concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and
commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by
practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods
that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
III. Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level
and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development
varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in
different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one’s type of
developmental readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–may preclude
learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance.
The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners and how they
interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community
factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling and the quality of
language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental
differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual
disabilities can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social
interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social
competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels
of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal
relationships that provide stability trust, and caring can increase learners’ sense of
belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs
about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role
expectations, and unique pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also
help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such
contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.
IV. Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that
are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these
preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular
and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to
attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accredited
and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and
social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply
to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all
can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting
enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in
learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment
are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel
challenged to work towards appropriately high goals. Therefore, appraisal of the
learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is
important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. On-
going assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can provide
valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning
goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides
one type of information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that
can inform various types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can
provide other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-
assessments of learning progress can also improve students’ self-appraisal skills and
enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them
to five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serve the foundation of all future
learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on
how he represents new information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills to reflect and
regulate their thoughts and behaviours in order to learn more effectively
(metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for
wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role
in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each
person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and
environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within
individuals
For you to attain more knowledge from the insights of authoritative sources of
these topics, you may visit the following links:
https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/crlmgn/learnercentered-principles
https://www.slideshare.net/chesteraseducator/facilitating-learnin
Learning Activity 1. Reflect on your learning experiences. Describe learning
situations that you experienced where these LCPs were applied. Give at least
one (1) learning / situation / activity / experience in each priciple. Write your
answers following the matrix below.

Learning experience / situation LCPs applied