1/7/25, 10:30 AM What is a microcontroller?

| IBM

What is a microcontroller?
A microcontroller unit (MCU) is essentially a small computer on a single
chip. It is designed to manage specific tasks within an embedded system
without requiring a complex operating system.

These compact integrated circuits (ICs) contain a processor core (or cores), random-access
memory (RAM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) for
storing the custom programs that run on the microcontroller, even when the unit is
disconnected from a power supply.

Unlike general-purpose microprocessors, microcontrollers integrate processing, memory

and input/output (I/O) peripherals—including timers, counters and analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs)—into one efficient and cost-effective standalone unit. By combining
multiple components into a single system, microcontrollers are well-suited for applications
requiring real-time signal processing, such as controlling motors and servos and interfacing
with various types of sensors and communications.

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Microcontroller components
The following are key components of a microcontroller:

Central processing unit (CPU): Colloquially referred to as the “brain” of the computer,
the CPU serves as the core component responsible for executing instructions and
controlling operations.

Memory: Microcontrollers contain both volatile memory (RAM)—which, unlike program

memory, stores temporary data that may be lost if the system loses power—and non-
volatile flash memory for storing the microcontroller’s programming instruction set
(firmware).

Peripherals: Depending on the intended application, a microcontroller might contain

various auxiliary components, such as input/output (I/O) interfaces—including timers,
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counters, analog-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analog (DAC) signal converters (ADCs)—

and communication protocols (UART, SPI, I2C). Auxiliaries might also include
components like LCD screens, ethernet connectivity ports or interfaces for such types of
modules.

Microcontrollers are ideal for battery-operated consumer electronics, such as smartphones,

smartwatches and other wearables, because they are lightweight, small and require
comparatively low power.

A favorite among open-source hobbyists, low-cost microcontrollers and microcontroller

development boards, such as those made by Arduino and Adafruit, can be easily configured
within an integrated development environment (IDE) using common programming
languages like C, C++ and Python. Although readily accessible to even beginner
developers, microcontrollers are also frequently used to control systems in a wide range of
professional applications, including prototyping, robotics, automotive systems, industrial
automation and Internet of Things (IoT) applications.

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Microcontrollers versus microprocessors

Microcontrollers and microprocessors share many similarities. Both can be described as
single-chip processors capable of executing computing logic, and both are highly valuable in
the development and proliferation of general computing technology. However, the two
components differ in both hardware architecture and application.

The defining characteristic of a microcontroller is the combination of all necessary

computing elements into a single chip—microcontrollers do not require any additional
external circuits to operate. Conversely, microprocessors consist of a CPU and several
supporting chips providing memory, serial interface, I/O and other necessary features.

While the terms microprocessor and CPU are sometimes used interchangeably, it’s more
accurate to describe microprocessor semiconductors as single integrated circuits that
contain a CPU and can be connected to other external auxiliaries, such as input/output
devices.

The main difference between these two types of microchips is that microcontrollers are self-
contained, whereas microprocessors are designed to interface with external auxiliaries.

As a result, generalized and demanding tasks that might require specialized hardware with
increased processing power are better suited for microprocessors. Specific tasks within
embedded systems, such as sensor or motor control, are good examples of suitable
microcontroller applications.

Key differences between

microcontrollers and microprocessors
When comparing microcontrollers and microprocessors, it's helpful to consider four key
features:

Integrations:
Microcontrollers integrate CPU, memory and I/O auxiliaries onto a single chip.
Microprocessors require external memory and additional auxiliaries.
Applications:
Microcontrollers are better suited for specific, low-power or ultra-low power
applications within embedded systems, such as home appliances or IoT devices.
Microprocessors are more suitable for general-purpose and high-performance
applications requiring more processing power, such as personal computers or the

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data centers' servers.

Performance:
Microcontrollers are optimized for efficiency and real-time processing and operate
at lower clock speeds up to 200MHz.
Microprocessors are built for more demanding and complicated computations and
can operate at clock speeds above 1 GHz.
Operational costs:
Microcontroller hardware is inexpensive, and because they do not require
specialized programming knowledge, they add little to overall project budgets.
Microprocessors are more expensive and more complex. Configuring an advanced
microprocessor-based system might require specialized skills.

Types of microcontrollers
The first types of microcontrollers grew out of advancements made in microprocessor
manufacturing as researchers developed techniques to integrate CPU, memory and
peripheral components into single chips.

Texas Instruments engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran are credited with creating
the first microcontroller in 1971. Manufacturers like Intel and various Japanese electronics
vendors followed quickly.

Today, dozens of different microcontroller manufacturers—such as Intel, NXP and Arm—

offer hundreds of varieties, ranging from general-purpose options for hobbyists and
amateurs to highly specialized solutions for professional technologists and all manner of
industries.

Here are some of the more common types of microcontrollers:

8-bit microcontrollers
The most basic type of microcontroller, featuring limited processing and memory and
typically used in small appliances like toys and remote controls.

16-bit microcontrollers
Twice as capable as 8-bit models, 16-bit microcontrollers are used for more complex
applications, including medical devices, automotive systems and industrial control
systems.

32-bit microcontrollers
The most powerful and feature-rich type of microcontrollers, these are used for demanding
applications, such as gaming consoles, entertainment devices and high-end industrial
automation.

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Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microcontrollers

RISC microcontrollers incorporate a design architecture that simplifies and improves
operations by executing fewer compute instructions faster than other methodologies, such
as the complex instruction set computer (CISC) architecture.

ARM microcontrollers
Formerly an acronym for Advanced RISC Machines, these types of microcontrollers
incorporate the ARM architecture, including the modern ARM Cortex subset, that bolsters
performance and reliability. ARM microcontrollers are widely used in mobile devices,
automotive systems and industrial control systems.

PIC microcontrollers
Developed by Microchip Technology, the PIC microcontroller is the world’s smallest
microcontroller, found frequently in robotics, home and industrial automation and
renewable energy systems.

FPGA-based microcontrollers
Commonly used in applications necessitating digital signal processing, video processing
and high-speed networking, these microcontrollers use field-programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs), which can be configured and reconfigured on the hardware level, to achieve
highly versatile and customizable processing results.

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