STATISTICS

WHAT IS STATISTICS?

• Statistics is the study that deals with collection , organization and presentation, and analysing data ,
interpreting results as well as drawing conclusion to make decisions.
• Statistics is both the science of uncertainty and the technology of extracting information from data.
• The general prerequisite for statistical decision making is the gathering of data. First, we need to
identify the individuals or objects to be included in the study and the characteristics or features of the
individuals that are of interest.
• Individuals are the people or objects included in the study.
• A variable is a characteristic of the individual to be measured or observed.
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive Statistics: Consists of methods for organizing, displaying and

describing data by using tables, graphs and summary measures. It is
concerned with the description summarization of data (Sample or
Population).
2. Inferential Statistics: Consists of methods that use sample results to help
make decisions or predictions about the population.
TYPES OF DATA/VARIABLES
DATA

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
DATA/VARIABLE DATA/VARIABLE

1.A quantitative variable refers to numerical or A qualitative variable also known as categorical
measurable information. or non-numerical data, provides information
It is expressed in terms of quantities, amounts, or about qualities, characteristics, properties, or
values that can be represented with numbers. attributes of a subject. It describes and captures
This type of data is used when the researcher subjective or non-measurable aspects of the
aims to measure or quantify variables or data. E.g. Gender, rank, class(1st class,…),
attributes. E.g. mass, height, length, number of race(black,…), type of food, blood group, sickle
students in a class, age, conc of Nitrogen, volume status, etc.
etc.
 Quantitative
variable/data

Discrete variable/Data Continuous

variable/Data

Takes a finite numeric value mostly obtained Takes any numeric value (real number)
by counting or enumerating something. E.g. within some given range or interval (i.e.
Number of students, number of workers in a within a given lower and upper limits)
company, number of households in a house, mostly obtained by measuring. E.g. Height,
number of languages spoken in a country weight, temperature, mass, volume, length,
etc. speed etc.
TERMINOLOGIES
• Population is the total number of individuals, items or entities that is under study.
• Sample is a subset of the population under study.

• In population data, the data are from every individual of interest.

• In sample data, the data are from only some of the individuals of interest.
• A population parameter or parameter is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of a
population.

• A statistic or sample statistic is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of a sample.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL, RATIO
• Nominal Data: Nominal data represents categories or labels without any specific order or
hierarchy. Examples include types of animals (cat, dog, bird) or colors (red, blue, green).
• Ordinal Data: Ordinal data represents categories with a specific order or ranking. Examples
include rankings of satisfaction levels (very satisfied, satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied, very
dissatisfied) or educational attainment levels (elementary, middle school, high school).
• Interval Data: Interval data is the second-highest level of measurement and possesses the
properties of nominal and ordinal data, along with equal intervals between data points.
However, it does not have a true zero point. The intervals between values are equal, but the
zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of the attribute being measured.
Examples of interval data include Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius, pH measure, IQ and
SAT scores.
• Ratio Data: Ratio data is the highest level of measurement that possesses all the
characteristics of other levels (nominal, ordinal, and interval) and includes an absolute zero
point. It allows for meaningful ratios between data points, making it possible to perform
arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Examples
of ratio data include Height, Weight, salary etc.
SOURCES OF DATA
1. Primary Source (Primary data)
• A primary source of data refers to original, firsthand information that is collected directly
from its source or created at the time of the event or research being studied.
• It is the most fundamental and authoritative form of data for research or analysis because it
provides direct evidence or documentation of an event, phenomenon, or research subject.
• Primary sources are typically generated by individuals or entities who have directly
experienced or witnessed the subject matter.
Examples of primary sources include:
• Surveys and Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Experiments
• Historical Documents: Letters, manuscripts, official records, speeches, or other written records
from a particular historical period, providing insights into the events and people of that time.
SOURCES OF DATA
• Secondary Source:
• A secondary source of data refers to information that is derived or obtained
from primary sources or other existing sources.
• It involves the use of previously collected data by researchers or analysts for
their own purposes, rather than collecting new data firsthand.
• Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or summarize primary data to provide
insights, context, or additional information.
 EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY SOURCES INCLUDE:
1.Books and Literature Reviews: Published books, academic journals, or literature reviews that
synthesize and analyze existing research findings and primary data.
2.Research Articles: Scholarly articles that present research conducted by others, including the analysis
of primary data collected by different researchers.
3.Review Papers: Papers that provide an overview or analysis of existing literature and research in a
particular field or topic, often incorporating insights from primary sources.
4.Government Reports: Reports published by governmental bodies or agencies that summarize or
analyze data collected through surveys, censuses, or administrative records.
5.Data Aggregators and Databases: Online platforms or repositories that compile and organize data from
multiple sources, allowing researchers to access and analyze a wide range of information.
6.Newspapers and Magazines: News articles or feature stories that report on or analyze events, research
findings, or trends using primary data as their source.
7.Documentary Films and TV Programs: Audiovisual productions that present information, analysis, or
interpretations of events or phenomena based on primary sources and research.
8.Meta-analyses and Systematic Reviews: Studies that systematically analyze and synthesize multiple
primary research studies to draw overarching conclusions or identify patterns.
SOURCES OF DATA CONT.

• Internal Source: Internal data is facts and information that come directly from the company’s systems and are
specific to the company in question. In almost every case, internal data cannot be accessed and studied by outside
parties without the express permission of the business entity.

• Internal data provides a look into the company’s current practices and their effectiveness. Collected from sources
like website KPIs and customer surveys, internal data is an invaluable tool for evaluating company policies,
products and branding, and employee productivity.

• Common Types of Internal Data

1. Sales Data (Revenue; Distribution channels; Price points; Customer surveys; Social media impressions; Website
and online store analytics.

2. Financial Data (Cash flow reports; Expense reports; Productions reports.)

3. Human Resource Data ( Employing satisfaction rate)

EXTERNAL DATA SOURCE
• External sources refer to the information collected] outside agencies. It can be
collected from primary as well as secondary sources; type of information can be
collected through census or sample method by conduct! Surveys and investigation.
• While internal data allows you to see how your company is interacting with its
employees, the market, and the individual customer, external data allows you to see
how your company fits into the global zeitgeist. It can help you learn about the
competitive landscape and your company’s reputation. It can even provide insight
into different economic, social, or political trends that may impact your business.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Survey ( census, sample survey)
• Sampling
• Pilot survey
• Sampling design
• Sampling frame
• Sampling technique (random and non-random)
• Error (sampling vs non-sampling error (conscious vs unconscious ; random vs systematic error)
• Random error introduces variability between different measurements of the same thing, while systematic error
skews your measurement away from the true value in a specific direction.
• Systematic errors are consistently in the same direction (e.g. they are always 50 g, 1% or 99 mm too large or
too small). In contrast, random errors produce different values in random directions. For example, you use a scale
to weigh yourself and get 148 lbs, 153 lbs, and 132 lbs.
SAMPLING
• Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of people, entities or units to
be studied from the larger universe or population.
• The main objective of sampling is to draw inferences about the larger
group based on information obtained from the small group.
• Also, sampling is to optimize the utilization of resources during the collection
and analysis of statistical data.
• When the population is highly heterogeneous, it poses a lot of problems,
but it is possible to make satisfactory estimates of the whole population
from a relatively small sample provided there was a proper technique
implemented for the sampling.
• Basically, the target is to get a sample that is a representative of the
population or reflects the population.

• So, if a proper or well-defined process is used in the selection process, then it

becomes possible to compute the differences between the estimates from
the sample and that from the population.

• This brings up the concept of errors especially sampling errors and also,
accuracy.
SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
• Sampling error refers to the discrepancy or difference between the characteristics
or results obtained from a sample and the true characteristics or results that
would have been obtained if the entire population had been examined.

• In other words, it is the amount of error or uncertainty that arises

due to the fact that we are working with a sample rather than the
complete population.
• Sampling error can occur because samples are subject to variability. When we
select a sample, it is likely to differ, to some extent, from the population in terms of
its characteristics or outcomes.

• This variation introduces an element of uncertainty in the estimates or inferences

we make based on the sample.
• The magnitude of the sampling error depends on factors such as the
size of the sample, the sampling method employed, and the variability
within the population.
• Generally, larger samples tend to yield more accurate estimates and
reduce the sampling error.
• Additionally, using appropriate sampling techniques that minimize
biases and ensure representativeness can help reduce sampling error.
• Non-sampling error refers to errors or inaccuracies that occur in the collection,
processing, analysis, and interpretation of data, which are not related to the process of
sampling itself.

• Non-sampling errors can occur due to a variety of reasons, including human error, data
entry mistakes, measurement errors, respondent errors, sampling frame errors, data
processing errors, and biases in data collection or analysis.
EXAMPLES OF NON-SAMPLING ERRORS INCLUDE:
1.Measurement error: This occurs when the measurement instrument used to
collect data is faulty, imprecise, or subject to interpretation errors. For instance, if a
weighing scale is not calibrated correctly, it may produce inaccurate weight
measurements.
2.Non-response bias: This happens when some individuals or groups selected for the
study do not participate or provide incomplete responses, leading to a potential
bias in the results.
3.Sampling frame errors: These errors occur when the sampling frame, which is the
list or source used to select the sample, does not accurately represent the target
population. This can result in undercoverage or overcoverage of certain population
segments.
4.Data processing errors: Mistakes can occur during data entry, coding, or data
cleaning processes. For example, if survey responses are incorrectly transcribed or
entered into a database, it can introduce errors into the dataset.
• Researchers employ various quality assurance measures, such as rigorous
data collection protocols, validation checks, and statistical techniques, to

reduce non-sampling errors and enhance the accuracy and integrity of the

data analysis.

• The total error in a sample survey, consisting of both the sampling and non-
sampling errors, is referred to as the “degree of accuracy”
REASONS TO USE SAMPLE
• There are several reasons for using a sample in research:
1.Cost and resource efficiency: Conducting research on an entire population can be
impractical or financially unfeasible. By using a sample, researchers can collect and
analyze data more efficiently, requiring fewer resources.
2.Time-saving: Studying a sample allows researchers to obtain results more quickly
compared to studying the entire population. This is particularly beneficial when
time is a constraint.
3.Feasibility: In some cases, it may be impossible to access or gather data from the
entire population. Using a sample allows researchers to work with a subset that is
more accessible and manageable.
4.Ethical considerations: In research involving human subjects, using a sample
reduces the burden on participants, as data collection is focused on a smaller group
rather than the entire population.
4. Accuracy: With proper sampling techniques, a well-designed sample can provide
accurate and reliable results that represent the characteristics of the population,
allowing for valid inferences and generalizations.
5. Practicality: Research may involve destructive testing, where the process of data
collection destroys or alters the subjects being studied. In such cases, using a sample
helps preserve the remaining population for future studies.
6. Statistical validity: By using appropriate sampling methods, researchers can apply
statistical techniques to estimate the sampling error, determine confidence intervals,
and assess the level of uncertainty associated with the findings. This helps ensure the
validity and reliability of the research conclusions.
• Overall, using a sample in research offers practical and efficient ways to gather data,
make inferences about a population, and draw meaningful conclusions while
considering constraints such as cost, time, and accessibility.
 TERMINOLOGIES
• POPULATION
Population: The population refers to the entire set of individuals, objects, or events that
share a common characteristic and are of interest to the researcher. It is the complete
group from which data is collected and analyzed. The population is typically defined by
specific criteria or attributes relevant to the research study.

Examples of populations include:

• All registered voters in a country.

• All students enrolled in a particular university.

• All employees working in a specific company.

• All cars produced by a certain automobile manufacturer.

• SAMPLE
A sample is a smaller subset of the population that is selected and studied to represent the
larger population. It is a manageable group that is chosen in a way that allows researchers to
draw conclusions about the entire population based on the characteristics observed in the
sample. Examples of samples include:

• Randomly selecting 500 registered voters from a country to study their voting preferences.
• Choosing a representative sample of 200 students from a university to assess their
satisfaction with campus facilities.

• Sampling 100 employees from a company to investigate their job satisfaction levels.
• Selecting a sample of 50 cars produced by an automobile manufacturer for quality testing.
• TARGET POPULATION
• refers to the specific group or population of individuals that a researcher intends to study or generalize the research
findings to.
• It is the well-defined and specific group that meets the criteria for inclusion in a research study. The target population is
typically defined based on certain characteristics or attributes that are relevant to the research objectives.
• The target population is a subset of the broader population that the researcher wants to make inferences about or draw
conclusions for.
• It is important to clearly define the target population to ensure that the research study focuses on the appropriate group and
that the findings are applicable to that specific group.
For example:
• In a study on the effectiveness of a new medication, the target population might be defined as adult individuals (age 18 and
above) with a specific medical condition.
• In a survey on consumer preferences for a particular product, the target population might be defined as individuals aged 25-
45 who have purchased the product in the past six months.
• In a study on the impact of a specific teaching method on student performance, the target population might be defined as
high school students attending a particular school.
• SAMPLING FRAME
• A sampling frame refers to a list, database, or other representation of the target
population from which a sample is drawn in a research study. It serves as a source or
reference from which potential participants or elements for the study can be selected.
• The sampling frame is constructed to encompass all members of the target population
and provides a comprehensive and accessible list of individuals or units that could
potentially be included in the sample.
For example:
• In a study aiming to survey university students, the sampling frame might consist of a list
of all currently enrolled students obtained from the university's registration system.
• In a study focusing on household incomes, the sampling frame might be constructed by
using a list of residential addresses obtained from a postal service or census data.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SAMPLING FRAME REQUIRES
CAREFUL CONSIDERATION OF THE FOLLOWING:
1.Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: The sampling frame should clearly define the characteristics or
attributes that determine whether an individual or unit belongs to the target population and
should be included in the frame.
2.Coverage: The sampling frame should cover the entire target population and avoid excluding
any eligible individuals or units. However, certain constraints or limitations may make it difficult
to achieve complete coverage.
3.Accuracy and Currency: The sampling frame should be as accurate and up to date as possible to
reflect the current composition of the target population. It is important to regularly update and
validate the sampling frame to minimize errors and omissions.
4.Accessibility: The sampling frame should be easily accessible for the researchers to select
potential participants or units for the study. This may involve obtaining permission or access to
relevant databases or records.
5.Sampling Unit: The sampling frame should clearly identify the individual units or elements that
can be selected as part of the sample. These units should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive. (NB: Sampling units are units or group of units to be selected in a sample survey)
 FINITE AND INFINITE POPULATION
• The terms "finite population" and "infinite population" refer to the size and characteristics of the
population being studied. These terms help determine the appropriate sampling methods and statistical
techniques to be used in research.

1.Finite Population: A finite population refers to a population that consists of a fixed and identifiable
number of individuals or elements. The size of the population is known and can be explicitly determined.

Examples of finite populations include:

• The employees of a specific company, where the total number of employees is known.

• The students in a particular school or university, where the enrollment records provide the exact count.

• The residents in a specific town, where the census data provides the population size.
2.Infinite Population: An infinite population refers to a population that is
theoretically unlimited or extremely large. The size of the population is either

unknown or so large that it is impractical to determine or count.

Examples of infinite populations include:

• All potential customers worldwide for a particular product.

• All possible measurements of a continuous variable, such as the heights of all

humans.

• All potential occurrences of a specific event, such as earthquake magnitudes.

SAMPLING DESIGN

• Sampling design refers to the systematic process of selecting a subset of

individuals or elements from a larger population for inclusion in a research

study.

• It involves making decisions about the sampling method, sample size, and
the procedure for selecting participants or units from the population.

• A well-designed sampling plan ensures that the sample is representative of

the target population and minimizes bias.
• The following are the typical steps involved in developing a sampling design:
1.Define the Target Population: Clearly define the specific group or population that the research aims to study and
generalize the findings to. Consider the characteristics and attributes that define the target population.
2.Determine the Sampling Method: Select an appropriate sampling method that aligns with the research objectives,
the nature of the population, and the available resources. Common sampling methods include simple random
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, and convenience sampling.
3.Determine the Sample Size: Determine the number of participants or units to include in the sample. The sample size
should be large enough to provide sufficient statistical power and representativeness while considering practical
limitations such as time, cost, and feasibility.
4.Selectthe Sampling Units: Develop a procedure for selecting the sampling units from the target population. This
may involve using a sampling frame (a list or representation of the population) or other methods to ensure proper
coverage and accessibility.
5.Implement the Sampling Plan: Execute the sampling plan by applying the chosen sampling method and selecting
the required number of participants or units. Ensure that the selection process is systematic, random, or
representative as per the sampling design.
6.Assess Sampling Bias and Error: Evaluate potential sources of bias or error in the sampling process and take
measures to minimize their impact. Consider factors such as non-response bias, sampling frame limitations, or
selection biases.
 SURVEY
• A survey is a research method used to collect data from a sample of individuals or units to
gather information about their characteristics, opinions, behaviors, or experiences.

• Surveys typically involve administering questionnaires or conducting interviews to gather

structured or semi-structured responses.

• Surveys can be conducted in various formats, including online surveys, telephone surveys,
face-to-face interviews, or paper-based questionnaires.

• Surveys are widely used in social sciences, market research, public opinion polling, and other
fields to obtain data for analysis and draw conclusions about a larger population.
 POPULATION CENSUS

• A population census is a complete and comprehensive count or enumeration of all

individuals or units within a specific geographic area.

• It aims to collect data on various demographic, social, economic, and housing

characteristics of every member of the population.

• Population censuses are typically conducted by national statistical agencies and

government bodies to obtain a detailed snapshot of the entire population.

• Census data provides a comprehensive profile of the population and is used for policy-

making, resource allocation, and planning purposes.

 SAMPLE SURVEY
• A sample survey is a research method where data is collected from a subset, or
sample, of individuals or units selected from a larger population.

• Instead of collecting data from the entire population, a sample survey focuses on
collecting information from a representative subset of the population. The sample is
carefully selected using specific sampling techniques to ensure that it accurately
represents the characteristics of the population.

• The collected data from the sample is then extrapolated or generalized to make
inferences about the larger population.

• Sample surveys are cost-effective and efficient ways to gather data, especially when
conducting a population census is impractical or not feasible.
 PLANNING A SURVEY
1. Statement of Objectives: State the objectives of the survey clearly and concisely, and refer to
those objectives regularly as the survey progresses.
2. Target Population: Carefully define the population to be sampled. If females of childbearing
are to be sample, then define what is meant by childbearing age (e.g. all females over the age of
18), and state what group of adults are included (e.g. all residents of a district).
3. The frame: Select the frame(s) so that the list of sampling units and the target population show
close agreement. Keep in mind that multiple frames may make the sampling more efficient. E.g.
Residents of a district can be sampled from the list of towns/villages coupled with a list of
households within towns/villages.
4. Sampling Design: Choose the design of the sample, including the sample size, just to obtain
enough information to meet the objectives.
5. Method of Measurement: Decide on the method of measurement, either one or more of the ff:
personal interviews, telephone interviews, mailed questionnaires or direct observations. If it is a
questionnaire to be used, plan the questions so that they minimize non-response and incorrect
response bias.
 CON’T
6. Selection and Training of Field Workers: Carefully select and train field workers. After
the sampling plan is clearly and completely set up, someone must collect the data.

7. The Pretest: Select a small sample for a pretest. The pre-test is relevant since it allows
you to field-test the questionnaire or other measurement device, to screen interviewers, and
to check on the management of the field operations.

8. Organization of fieldworkers: Plan the fieldwork in detail. Any large –scale survey
involves numerous people working as interviewers, coordinators, or data managers.

9. Organization of Data Management: Outline how each piece of data is to be handle for
all stages of the of the survey. A well-prepared management plan is needed especially
when the data size is large.

10. Data Analysis: Outline the analysis that are to be completed.

 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

• Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals, units, or

observations from a larger population for the purpose of gathering data and making

inferences about the population. The goal of sampling is to obtain a representative

sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population of interest.

• Sampling techniques are specific methods or procedures used to select the individuals

or units for inclusion in the sample. Various sampling techniques are available, each

with its own advantages, limitations, and applicability based on the research objectives,

population characteristics, available resources, and constraints.

 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Probability or Random Sampling
2. Non-Probability or Non-Random Sampling
• Probability Sampling: Probability sampling involves selecting participants or elements from a
population using a random selection process, ensuring that each member of the population has a
known, non-zero probability of being included in the sample.
Probability sampling allows for the calculation of sampling error and the estimation of population
parameters. Common probability sampling methods include Simple Random Sampling, Systematic
Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Multistage Sampling.

• Non-Probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling involves selecting participants or elements

using non-random methods, and the selection process does not provide each member of the
population with a known or calculable probability of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is commonly used when probability sampling methods are not feasible or
practical. However, it may introduce biases and limit the generalizability of findings beyond the
sample. Common non-probability sampling methods include Convenience sampling, Judgmental
Sampling, Purposive sampling, snowball sampling, Quota sampling, voluntary response variable.
 RANDOM SAMPLING
• Simple random sampling is a probability sampling technique in which every individual
or element in a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. It
involves randomly selecting participants or elements from the population without any
specific criteria or stratification.

• The key feature of simple random sampling is that every member of the population has
an equal probability of being chosen, providing an unbiased representation of the
population.

• This technique allows for the estimation of sampling error and enables generalization of
findings from the sample to the larger population.

• It is often used when the population is relatively homogenous, and there are no specific
subgroups or strata of interest.
 CON’T
• Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups or strata based on specific
characteristics, and participants are randomly selected from each stratum in proportion
to its representation in the population. Stratified sampling improves representativeness
and allows for separate analyses within each stratum.

• Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, such as geographical areas or
organizations, and a random sample of clusters is selected. All individuals or elements
within the selected clusters are included in the sample. Cluster sampling is useful when
it is difficult or costly to obtain a list of the entire population.

• Systematic Sampling: Individuals or elements are selected from a list or population

frame at regular intervals using a systematic process. The starting point is randomly
determined, and subsequent selections follow a systematic pattern.
 NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
Convenience sampling
• Convenience sampling is primarily determined by convenience to the researcher.

This can include factors like:

• Ease of access
• Geographical proximity

• Existing contact within the population of interest

• Convenience samples are sometimes called “accidental samples,” because participants can be selected for the
sample simply because they happen to be nearby when the researcher is conducting the data collection.

Example: Convenience sampling

• You are investigating the association between daily weather and daily shopping patterns. To collect insight into
people’s shopping patterns, you decide to stand outside a major shopping mall in your area for a week, stopping
people as they exit and asking them if they are willing to answer a few questions about their purchases.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• In quota sampling, you select a predetermined number or proportion of units,
called a quota. Your quota should comprise subgroups with specific characteristics
(e.g., individuals, cases, or organizations) and should be selected in a non-random
manner.
• Your subgroups, called quota, should be mutually exclusive. Your estimation can be
based on previous studies or on other existing data, if there are any. This helps you
determine how many units should be chosen from each subgroup. In the data
collection phase, you continue to recruit units until you reach your quota.
• Tip: Your respondents should be recruited non-randomly, with the end goal being that
the proportions in each subgroup coincide with the estimated proportions in
the population.
• There are two types of quota sampling:
1.Proportional quota sampling is used when the size of the population is known. This allows you
to determine the quota of individuals that you need to include in your sample in order to be
representative of your population.
• Example: Let’s say that in a certain company there are 1,000 employees. They are split into 2
groups: 600 people who drive to work, and 400 who take the train.
• You decide to draw a sample of 100 employees. You would need to survey 60 drivers and 40
train-riders for your sample to reflect the proportion seen in the company.
2.Non-proportional quota sampling is used when the size of the population is unknown. Here,
it’s up to you to determine the quota of individuals that you are going to include in your sample
in advance.
• Example: Let’s say you are seeking opinions about the design choices on a website, but do not
know how many people use it. You may decide to draw a sample of 100 people, including a
quota of 50 people under 40 and a quota of 50 people over 40. This way, you get the
perspective of both age groups.
• Note that quota sampling may sound similar to stratified sampling, a probability sampling method
where you divide your population into subgroups that share a common characteristic.
• The key difference here is that in stratified sampling, you take a random sample from each subgroup,
while in quota sampling, the sample selection is non-random, usually via convenience sampling. In
other words, who is included in the sample is left up to the subjective judgment of the researcher.
• Example: You work for a market research company. You are seeking to interview 20 homeowners and
20 tenants between the ages of 45 and 60 living in a certain suburb.
• You stand at a convenient location, such as a busy shopping street, and randomly select people to talk to
who appear to satisfy the age criterion. Once you stop them, you must first determine whether they do
indeed fit the criteria of belonging to the predetermined age range and owning or renting a property in
the suburb.
• Sampling continues until quotas for various subgroups have been selected. If contacted individuals are
unwilling to participate or do not meet one of the conditions (e.g., they are over 60 or they do not live in
the suburb), they are simply replaced by those who do. This approach really helps to
mitigate nonresponse bias.
 SELF-SELECTION (VOLUNTEER)/VOLUNTARY RESPONSE SAMPLING

• Self-selection sampling (also called volunteer sampling) relies on participants who

voluntarily agree to be part of your research. This is common for samples that need
people who meet specific criteria, as is often the case for medical or psychological
research.
• In self-selection sampling, volunteers are usually invited to participate through
advertisements asking those who meet the requirements to sign up. Volunteers are
recruited until a predetermined sample size is reached.

• Self-selection or volunteer sampling involves two steps:

1.Publicizing your need for subjects
2.Checking the suitability of each subject and either inviting or rejecting them
 EXAMPLE: SELF-SELECTION SAMPLING

• Suppose that you want to set up an experiment to see if mindfulness exercises can
increase the performance of long-distance runners. First, you need to recruit your
participants. You can do so by placing posters near locations where people go
running, such as parks or stadiums.
• Your ad should follow ethical guidelines, making it clear what the study involves. It
should also include more practical information, such as the types of participants
required. In this case, you decide to focus on runners who can run at least 5 km and
have no prior training or experience in mindfulness.
• Keep in mind that not all people who apply will be eligible for your research. There
is a high chance that many applicants will not fully read or understand what your
study is about, or may possess disqualifying factors. It’s important to double-check
eligibility carefully before inviting any volunteers to form part of your sample.
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• Snowball sampling is used when the population you want to research is hard to
reach, or there is no existing database or other sampling frame to help you find
them. Research about socially marginalized groups such as drug addicts, homeless
people, or sex workers often uses snowball sampling.

• To conduct a snowball sample, you start by finding one person who is willing to
participate in your research. You then ask them to introduce you to others.

• Alternatively, your research may involve finding people who use a certain product
or have experience in the area you are interested in. In these cases, you can also
use networks of people to gain access to your population of interest.
 EXAMPLE: SNOWBALL SAMPLING
• You are studying homeless people living in your city. You start by attending a
housing advocacy meeting, striking up a conversation with a homeless woman. You
explain the purpose of your research and she agrees to participate. She invites you
to a parking lot serving as temporary housing and offers to introduce you around.

• In this way, the process of snowball sampling begins. You started by attending the
meeting, where you met someone who could then put you in touch with others in
the group.

• When studying vulnerable populations, be sure to follow ethical considerations and

guidelines.
 PURPOSIVE (JUDGMENTAL) SAMPLING
• Purposive sampling is a blanket term for several sampling techniques that choose
participants deliberately due to qualities they possess. It is also called judgmental
sampling, because it relies on the judgment of the researcher to select the units
(e.g., people, cases, or organizations studied).
• Purposive sampling is common in qualitative and mixed methods research designs,
especially when considering specific issues with unique cases.
• Note: Unlike random samples—which deliberately include a diverse cross-section of
ages, backgrounds, and cultures—the idea behind purposive sampling is to
concentrate on people with particular characteristics, who will enable you to answer
your research questions.
• The sample being studied is not representative of the population, but for certain
qualitative and mixed methods research designs, this is not an issue.
• Common purposive sampling techniques include:
• Maximum variation (heterogeneous) sampling
• Homogeneous sampling
• Typical case sampling
• Extreme (or deviant) case sampling
• Critical case sampling
• Expert sampling
• These can either be used on their own or in combination with other purposive
sampling techniques.
 MAXIMUM VARIATION SAMPLING
• The idea behind maximum variation sampling is to look at a subject from all
possible angles in order to achieve greater understanding. Also known as
heterogeneous sampling, it involves selecting candidates across a broad spectrum
relating to the topic of study. This helps you capture a wide range of perspectives
and identifies common themes evident across the sample.
• Example: You are researching what first-year students think of their study program.
You are more interested in nuance than generalizable findings, so you decide to
pursue a qualitative approach.
• You draw your sample using maximum variation sampling, including students who
performed poorly, students who excelled, and students in the middle. You recruit and
interview students until you have reached a saturation point.
 HOMOGENEOUS SAMPLING
• Homogeneous sampling, unlike maximum variation sampling, aims to achieve a
sample whose units share characteristics, such as a group of people that are similar
in terms of age, culture, or job. The idea here is to focus on this similarity,
investigating how it relates to the topic you are researching.

• Example: You are researching the long-term side effects of working with asbestos.
You determine “long-term” to mean 20 years or longer. Using homogeneous sampling,
only people who worked with asbestos for 20 years or longer are included in your
sample.
 TYPICAL CASE SAMPLING
• A typical case sample is composed of people who can be regarded as “typical” for a community or
phenomenon. A typical case sample allows you to develop a profile of what would generally be agreed
as being “average” or “normal.”
• Typical case samples are often used when large communities or complex problems are investigated. In
this way, you can gain an understanding in a relatively short time, even if you are not familiar with
what’s going on yourself.
• Example: Suppose you want to evaluate the level of care provided by physiotherapists to clients at a
certain clinic. To develop a typical case sample, you interact closely with both therapists and clients in
order to develop a set of criteria of what is “typical,” or average.
• For physiotherapists, this could include years of professional experience, educational background, etc. For
patients, criteria can include their age, or how often they have visited the clinic in the past year. By
comparing the two typical case samples, you can conclude whether the average physiotherapist has the
expertise needed to meet the average client’s needs.
• Note that the purpose of typical case sampling is to describe and illustrate what is typical to those
unfamiliar with the setting or situation. The purpose is not to make generalized statements about the
experiences of all participants. In other words, typical case sampling allows you to compare samples,
not generalize samples to populations.
 EXTREME (DEVIANT) CASE SAMPLING
• Extreme (or deviant) case sampling uses extreme cases of a particular
phenomenon (outliers). This can mean remarkable failures, successes, or crises, as
well as any event, organization, or individual that appears to be the “exception to
the rule.” Extreme case sampling is most often used when researchers are
developing best-practice guidelines.
• Note that extreme case sampling usually occurs in combination with other sampling
strategies. The process of identifying extreme or deviant cases usually occurs after
some portion of data collection and analysis has already been completed.
• Example: You are studying serial killers. You identify a few cases where the serial
killer was female. These cases are outliers, i.e., cases that stand out in your sample. In
an effort to develop a richer, more in-depth understanding of the phenomenon, you
decide to select these outliers and analyze them further.
 CRITICAL CASE SAMPLING
• Critical case sampling is used where a single case (or a small number of cases) can be
critical or decisive in explaining the phenomenon of interest. It is often used in exploratory
research, or in research with limited resources.
There are a few cues that can help show you whether or not a case is critical, such as:
• “If it happens here, it will happen anywhere”
• “If that group is having problems, then all groups are having problems”
• It is critical to ensure that your cases fit these criteria prior to proceeding with this sampling
method.
• Example: You want to know how well people understand a new tax law. If you ask tax
professionals and they do not understand it, then it’s likely laypeople won’t either.
Alternatively, if you ask people from other professional fields, irrelevant to taxes or law, and
they do understand it, then it’s safe to assume most people will.
• In other words, your critical cases could either be those with relevant expertise or those who
have no relevant expertise.
 EXPERT SAMPLING

• Expert sampling involves selecting a sample based on demonstrable experience,

knowledge, or expertise of participants. This expertise may be a good way to
compensate for a lack of observational evidence or to gather information during
the exploratory phase of your research.
• Alternatively, your research may be focused on individuals who possess exactly this
expertise, similar to ethnographic research.
• Example: You are interested in teaching methods for children with special needs in
your district, and you want to conduct some exploratory research. Using expert
sampling, you can contact special education teachers who work at schools in your
district, gathering your data via surveys or interviews.
• Advantages of non-probability sampling • Disadvantages of non-probability sampling
• Depending on your research design, there are • Non-probability sampling has some downsides as well.
advantages to choosing non-probability sampling. These include the following:
• Non-probability sampling does not require a sampling • Non-probability samples are extremely unlikely to be
frame, so your subjects are often readily available. This representative of the population studied. This
can make non-probability sampling quicker and easier undermines the generalizability and validity of your
to carry out. results.
• Non-probability sampling allows you to target • Non-probability samples are at risk of several kinds
particular groups within your population. In certain of research bias:
types of research, it is vital that certain units be • As some units in the population have no chance of
included in your sample. For example, many kinds of being included in the sample, undercoverage bias is
medical research rely on people with a specific health likely.
issue.
• Furthermore, since the selection of units included in
• Although it is not possible to make statistical the sample is often based on ease of
inferences from the sample to the population, non- access, sampling bias is common as well.
probability sampling methods can provide researchers • While the subjective judgment of the researcher in
with the data to make other types of generalizations choosing who makes up the sample can be an
from the sample being studied. advantage, it also increases the risk of observer bias.
• Advantages of probability sampling • Disadvantages of probability sampling
• There are two main advantages to probability • Choosing probability sampling as your
sampling. sampling method comes with some challenges,
• Samples selected with this method are too. These include the following:
representative of the population at large. Due • It may be difficult to access a list of the entire
to this, inferences drawn from such samples population, due to ethical or privacy concerns,
can be generalized to the total population you or a full list may not exist. It can be expensive
are studying. and time-consuming to compile this yourself.
• As some statistical tests, such as multiple • Although probability sampling reduces the risk
linear regression, t test, or ANOVA, can only of sampling bias, it can still occur. When your
be applied to a sample size large enough to selected sample is not inclusive enough,
approximate the true distribution of the representation of the full population is skewed.
population, using probability sampling allows
you to establish correlation or cause-and-
effect relationship between your variables.