Title: Construction of Diode and Transistor Logic Gates

Part I: Construction of Diode Logic Gates

Introduction: A diode is a two-terminal electronic component designed to permit current
flow in only one direction while blocking it in the opposite direction. It can be compared to a
pipe with a one-way valve that lets water flow freely in one direction but stops it if it attempts
to reverse. The two terminals of a diode are known as the anode and cathode. In the diode's
symbol, the arrow, formed by the triangle, indicates the current's direction from the anode
(the triangle's base) to the cathode (the pointed tip).

A diode functions by allowing current to flow from the anode to the cathode, aligning with
the direction of the triangle in its symbol. Current is conventionally defined as flowing from a
higher positive voltage to a lower negative voltage, while electrons move in the opposite
direction. When the anode is at a higher voltage than the cathode, the diode is forward-biased,
offering very low resistance and permitting current to flow. Conversely, if the anode has a
lower voltage than the cathode, the diode is reverse-biased, exhibiting very high resistance
and effectively blocking current. However, a diode is not an ideal conductor, and a small
voltage drop of around 0.7 V typically occurs across it during operation.

In this group of experiments, we will implement some logic functions using the DL circuits
and discover the potential benefits and problems of using the DL logic.

Theory and Methodology:

Diode Logic OR Gate:
A Diode Logic (DL) OR gate is a simple circuit consisting of diodes (one per input signal)
and a resistor. The 10 kΩ resistor (R) is included to establish a ground reference for the
output signal. When no input signals are applied to the diodes, the output remains at ground
level, representing logic 0. In this setup, an unconnected input behaves as a logic 0 input and
does not affect the circuit's operation. Additional input diodes can be incorporated, each with
its own signal, but two inputs are sufficient to illustrate how the circuit functions.
Assuming the diodes are ideal, the voltage-based truth table as given in Table 1 (a) is
obtained. The corresponding logic-based or binary truth table is given in Table 1 (b):
Table 1: (a) Voltage-based truth table, (b) Logic-based or binary truth table of DL OR gate

Diode Logic AND Gate:

A Diode Logic (DL) AND gate is composed of diodes (one for each input signal) and a
resistor. Similar to the DL OR gate, a 10 kΩ resistor (R) is used, but in this case, it provides a
reference to +5 volts instead of ground. When no input signals are applied to the diodes, the
output remains at +5 volts, representing logic 1. An open input does not impact the circuit's
functionality, allowing it to operate as expected. Like the DL OR gate, additional input
diodes can be included, each connected to a separate input signal. However, two inputs are
sufficient to demonstrate the circuit's functionality.

Assuming the diodes are ideal, the voltage truth table of the above AND gate is as given in
Table 2 (a). The corresponding logic truth table is in Table 2(b).
Table 2: (a) Voltage-based truth table, (b) Logic-based or binary truth table of DL AND gate

Apparatus:
(1) 10 k ohm resistor (Color band: brown-black-orange).
(2) 1N914/1N4002 diodes or equivalent.
(3) Connecting wires.
(4) Trainer Board
Precautions:
Have your instructor check all your connections after you are done setting up the circuit and
make sure that you apply the correct voltage (within VCC) to turn on the diodes/transistors
and/or chip, otherwise it may get damaged!
Experimental Procedure:
1. The DL-OR gate was constructed on the breadboard as shown in the Fig. 1. Then, a truth
table was drawn and experimental results were filled similar to the one provided one.
2. The DL-OR gate was constructed on the breadboard as shown in the Fig. 2. Then, a truth
table was drawn and experimental results were filled similar to the one provided one.

Part 2: Construction of Bipolar Transistor Logic Gate

Introduction:
A bipolar transistor is a semiconductor device with three terminals. It allows current to flow
from the collector terminal to the emitter terminal, controlled by the base terminal.

In this experiment, we examine how to build logic gates from Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJT) using the RTL, DTL, and TTL design.
Theory and Methodology:
Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL):
Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL) improves on Diode Logic by using a transistor as a switch
instead of diodes. When a +5 V signal (logic 1) is applied to the transistor's base via a
resistor, the transistor turns on, grounding the output (logic 0). If the input is grounded (logic
0), the transistor turns off, and the output rises to +5 V (logic 1). This design inverts the input
signal and ensures valid logic levels, allowing RTL circuits to be cascaded reliably, unlike
DL circuits.
Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL):
Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) is a class of digital circuits built from Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJT), diodes, and resistors; it is the direct ancestor of Transistor–Transistor
Logic (TTL). DTL offers better noise margins and greater fan-outs than RTL but suffers from
low speed (especially in comparison to TTL). RTL allows the construction of NOR gates
easily, but NAND gates are relatively more difficult to get from RTL. DTL, however, allows
the construction of simple NAND gates from a single transistor, with the help of several
diodes and resistors.

Transistor-Transistor Logic:
A bipolar transistor can be imagined as two diodes positioned closely together, with the base
acting as the junction between them. This allows transistors to replace diodes in creating
logic gates that are built using only transistors and resistors, a system known as Transistor-
Transistor Logic (TTL).
One issue with Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) is its slow speed, particularly when turning off
the transistor. To turn off a saturated transistor in a DTL gate, it must first pass through the
active region before reaching cut-off. This cut-off is only achieved once the stored charge in
the transistor's base is dissipated, which takes time if there is no path to ground. Some DTL
circuits use a base resistor to ground, but this introduces trade-offs. Additionally, the output
transistor in DTL requires time to charge the output capacitance through a resistor before the
output reaches the final logic '1' level. In contrast, Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
effectively addresses these speed issues.

Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL):

The operation of Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) is that whenever the HIGH input is given to
any one of the ECL circuits, it will make the transistors ON. So, this will pull the output, Vo,
down to LOW
Similarly, when the LOW input value is given to all the transistors’ input then it will make all
the transistors OFF. So, it will make the output, Vo be pulled up to the HIGH value because
of the drop within 640 ohm resistance.

BJT Pin Configuration:

Pre-Lab Homework:
Explain how n-p-n BJT transistors work.
Students must install PSpice/LTSpice/PSIM software and must present the simulation results
using transistors to the instructor before the start of the experiment.
Apparatus:
1. 2N4124 NPN silicon transistor (or equivalent).
2. Resistors (15 kΩ, 1 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ)
3. Connecting wires.
4. Trainer Board

Precautions:
Have your instructor check all your connections after you are done setting up the circuit and
make sure that you apply the appropriate voltage (within VCC) to turn on the transistors
and/or chip, otherwise it may get damaged.

Experimental Procedures:
1. The circuit for the RTL inverter was set up as shown in Fig: 6.
2. The output was measured and placed in the Truth Table for each input combination. The
Truth Table has two sets of outputs – one ideal and one experimental.
3. Steps 1 and 3 were repeated for the circuit set-up of Figs: 7 and 8.
Fig: 3

Fig: 4
Fig: 5

Fig: 6
Fig: 7

Fig: 8
Simulation and Measurement:
Results and Discussion:
In this part of the experiment, we applied AND, OR, and two-input AND-OR logic gates
using transistors. We successfully built the circuit and obtained the expected results. Two
switches were used to match the output with the truth table. Some errors may have occurred
during the experiment, and there were also instrumental issues when implementing the RTL
inverter, which malfunctioned. We used switches to toggle the inputs and achieve the desired
output. TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) is a type of digital circuit composed of resistors
and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). Since transistors handle both logic gating (e.g., AND)
and amplification, it's called transistor-transistor logic, in contrast to RTL and DTL. TTL is a
widely used integrated circuit (IC) family found in various applications such as computers,
industrial controls, test equipment, consumer electronics, and synthesizers. Even when not
directly related to TTL ICs, the term TTL is often used to refer to TTL-compatible logic
levels, such as on the inputs and outputs of electronic devices.

Reference(s):
1. Thomas L. Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 9th Edition, 2006, Prentice Hall, India.
2. Boylestad, Robert L. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory. Pearson Education, India,
2009.