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Unit 9 - Infinite Sequences and Series - Key Concepts and Techniques

Unit 9 covers infinite sequences and series, essential concepts in calculus that analyze the behavior of functions and sums extending indefinitely. It explains sequences, their convergence and divergence, as well as infinite series and various convergence tests such as the Integral Test, Ratio Test, and Root Test. Additionally, it introduces power series and their applications in approximating functions through Maclaurin and Taylor series.

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53 views3 pages

Unit 9 - Infinite Sequences and Series - Key Concepts and Techniques

Unit 9 covers infinite sequences and series, essential concepts in calculus that analyze the behavior of functions and sums extending indefinitely. It explains sequences, their convergence and divergence, as well as infinite series and various convergence tests such as the Integral Test, Ratio Test, and Root Test. Additionally, it introduces power series and their applications in approximating functions through Maclaurin and Taylor series.

Uploaded by

Alex Mathew
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Unit 9: Infinite Sequences and Series - Key Concepts and Techniques

Unit 9 introduces the concept of infinite sequences and series, a fundamental topic in calculus
that explores the behavior of functions and sums that continue indefinitely. Understanding
sequences and series is crucial in fields like physics, economics, and computer science, where
patterns and approximations often extend beyond finite limits.

Sequences

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, often described by a function that assigns a value to
each positive integer. A sequence can be written in the form:

a1,a2,a3,…a_1, a_2, a_3, \dotsa1​,a2​,a3​,…

The general term of a sequence is denoted by ana_nan​, where nnn is the index. The sequence
is said to be increasing if ana_nan​is greater than an−1a_{n-1}an−1​for all nnn, and
decreasing if ana_nan​is less than an−1a_{n-1}an−1​.

One of the central goals in studying sequences is determining whether a sequence converges
or diverges as n→∞n \to \inftyn→∞.

●​ A sequence converges if it approaches a finite value as nnn increases.


●​ A sequence diverges if it does not approach a finite value (it may tend toward infinity or
oscillate).

To analyze convergence, we often use the limit of the sequence:

lim⁡n→∞an=L\lim_{n \to \infty} a_n = Ln→∞lim​an​=L

If the limit exists and is finite, the sequence converges to LLL; otherwise, it diverges.

Series

An infinite series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. It is written as:

S=a1+a2+a3+⋯=∑n=1∞anS = a_1 + a_2 + a_3 + \dots = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}


a_nS=a1​+a2​+a3​+⋯=n=1∑∞​an​

The sum of an infinite series is found by taking the limit of the partial sums:

SN=a1+a2+⋯+aNS_N = a_1 + a_2 + \dots + a_NSN​=a1​+a2​+⋯+aN​

As N→∞N \to \inftyN→∞, if the limit of the partial sums exists, the series converges to that
value. If the limit does not exist, the series diverges.

Convergence Tests for Series


To determine whether a series converges or diverges, several convergence tests are
commonly used:

1.​ The Integral Test: For a positive, continuous, and decreasing function f(x)f(x)f(x) that
represents the terms of the series, the series ∑n=1∞an\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n∑n=1∞​an​
converges if and only if the integral ∫1∞f(x) dx\int_{1}^{\infty} f(x) \, dx∫1∞​f(x)dx
converges.
2.​ The Ratio Test: For a series with terms ana_nan​, the ratio test examines the limit:

L=lim⁡n→∞∣an+1an∣L = \lim_{n \to \infty} \left| \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n} \right|L=n→∞lim​​an​an+1​​

●​ If L<1L < 1L<1, the series converges absolutely.


●​ If L>1L > 1L>1, the series diverges.
●​ If L=1L = 1L=1, the test is inconclusive.
3.​ The Root Test: This test looks at the limit:

L=lim⁡n→∞∣an∣nL = \lim_{n \to \infty} \sqrt[n]{|a_n|}L=n→∞lim​n∣an​∣​

●​ If L<1L < 1L<1, the series converges.


●​ If L>1L > 1L>1, the series diverges.
●​ If L=1L = 1L=1, the test is inconclusive.
4.​ The Comparison Test: This test compares a given series to a known convergent or
divergent series. If the terms of the given series are smaller than or equal to the terms of
a convergent series, the given series converges.
5.​ Alternating Series Test: For series with alternating positive and negative terms, the
Alternating Series Test checks if the terms decrease in absolute value and approach
zero.

Power Series

A power series is a series of the form:

∑n=0∞cn(x−a)n\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} c_n (x - a)^nn=0∑∞​cn​(x−a)n

where cnc_ncn​are coefficients and aaa is the center of the series. A power series can
represent many types of functions, and its interval of convergence can be determined using the
ratio test or root test.

If a power series converges at a particular value of xxx, then the series can be used to
approximate the function near that point. This makes power series an essential tool in
approximating complicated functions, such as in Maclaurin series or Taylor series, which are
used to approximate functions by polynomials.

Maclaurin and Taylor Series


1.​ Maclaurin Series: A Maclaurin series is a type of Taylor series expanded at x=0x =
0x=0. It is given by:

f(x)=∑n=0∞f(n)(0)n!xnf(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{f^{(n)}(0)}{n!} x^nf(x)=n=0∑∞​n!f(n)(0)​xn

This series can approximate functions near x=0x = 0x=0, and is especially useful for functions
that have simple derivatives at zero.

2.​ Taylor Series: A Taylor series is a more general form of a power series that
approximates a function near a point aaa:

f(x)=∑n=0∞f(n)(a)n!(x−a)nf(x) = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{f^{(n)}(a)}{n!} (x -


a)^nf(x)=n=0∑∞​n!f(n)(a)​(x−a)n

Taylor series are powerful tools in approximating functions, solving differential equations, and
understanding the local behavior of functions.

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