Edexcel Physics A-level

Topic 8: Nuclear and Particle Physics

Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
8 - Nuclear and Particle Physics

8.130 - Nucleon number and proton number

An atom is formed of 3 constituents: ​protons, neutrons and electrons​. At the centre of an atom is
a nucleus formed of protons and neutrons, therefore they are known as nucleons, whereas
electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

The ​proton number​ is the number of protons in an atom and is denoted by Z , while the ​nucleon
number​ is the number of protons and neutrons, denoted by A . These will often be shown in the
form: (where ‘X’ is the symbol for the element).

8.131 - Alpha particle scattering as evidence for the nuclear model of the atom
Rutherford scattering​ demonstrated the ​existence of a nucleus​. Before this experiment, scientists
believed in ​Thomson’s plum pudding model​ which stated that the atom was made up of ​a
sphere of positive charge, with small areas of negative charge evenly distributed throughout​ like
plums in a plum pudding. Rutherford scattering led to the production of a new model for the atom,
known as the ​nuclear model​ because the plum pudding model had been disproved.

Rutherford’s apparatus included an ​alpha source and gold foil in an evacuated chamber which
was covered in a fluorescent coating​,​ which meant you could see where the alpha particles hit
the inside of the chamber. To observe the path of the alpha particles, there was a ​microscope
which could be moved around the outside of the chamber.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Image source: ​Kurzon​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

If the plum pudding model was true, the expected results would be that the positively charged
alpha particles would be deflected by a very small amount when passing through the foil, however
this was not what was observed:
● Most alpha particles passed straight through the foil with no deflection​ - this
suggested that the ​atom is mostly empty space​ (and not a uniform density as suggested
by the plum pudding model).
● A small amount of particles were deflected by a large angle ​- this suggested that the
centre of the atom is positively charged​, as positively charged alpha particles were
repelled from the centre and deflected.
● Very few particles were deflected back by more than 90°​ - this suggested that the
centre of the atom was very dense​ as it could deflect fast moving alpha particles, but also
that it was ​very small​ as a very small amount of particles were deflected by this amount.

From the above results it was concluded that the atom has a ​small, dense, positively charged
nucleus​ at its centre​.

Image source: ​Kurzon​,​CC BY-SA 3.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
8.132 - Thermionic emission
Thermionic emission​ is where a metal is heated until the free electrons on its surface gain
enough energy and are emitted.

Electrons can be accelerated using ​electric fields​ in order to ​increase their velocity​, but they can
also be ​accelerated radially​ using ​magnetic fields​, because the force experienced by an electron
moving in a magnetic field is always perpendicular to its motion.

Electron guns​ use a potential difference in order to accelerate electrons, which are released from
the cathode by heating it ​(thermionic emission)​. The electrons are ​accelerated towards the
anode​, which has a small gap, the electrons which pass through this gap form a narrow electron
beam which travels at a constant velocity beyond the anode.

8.133 - Particle accelerators and detectors

Electron guns ​are useful for producing electron beams of a relatively low energy to be used in
particle accelerators. There are two types of particle accelerators that you need to be aware of:
● Linear accelerator (LINAC)​ ​- uses an alternating electric field
● Cyclotron ​- uses a magnetic field and an alternating electric field

Linear accelerators​ are formed by several cylindrical electrodes, called drift tubes, which
progressively increase in length along the accelerator (labelled C1 - C4 in the diagram below).
Adjacent electrodes are connected to the opposite polarity of an alternating voltage​, which means
that alternating electric fields are formed in the gaps between electrodes.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
At the particle source (labelled S), groups of charged particles are released such that the ​polarity of
the voltage of the first electrode is opposite to the polarity of the charged particles​, so that they are
accelerated ​towards the first electrode. The length of the cylindrical electrodes is calculated such
that, just as the particle passes through the electrode, the polarity of the voltage (and so the
electric field) reverses, meaning that the particles can be ​accelerated ​towards the next electrode.
And this process repeats until the particles reach the desired speed.

A cyclotron is formed of ​two semi-circular electrodes​ called “Dees”, with a ​uniform magnetic
field​ acting ​perpendicular​ to the plane of the electrodes, and a high frequency ​alternating
voltage​ applied between the electrodes. The charged particles move from the ​centre​ of one of the
electrodes, and are deflected in a circular path by the magnetic field. (Because the force exerted
by the magnetic field is always perpendicular to the direction of travel, the ​particle’s speed will not
increase due to the magnetic field​, which is why there is an alternating electric field between the
electrodes).

Once the particles reach the edge of the electrode they begin to move across the gap between the
electrodes, where they are ​accelerated by the electric field​, meaning the ​radius of their circular
path will increase​ as they move through the second electrode. When the particles reach the gap
again, the​ ​alternating electric field changes direction, allowing the particles to be
accelerated again​. This process repeats several times until the required speed is reached by the
particles and they exit the cyclotron.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Electric and magnetic fields are also used in ​particle detectors​, such as mass spectrometers,
which work in the following way:
1. A sample is vaporised, meaning it is converted into a vapour (gas)
2. Next, an ​electron gun​ is used to create a beam of electrons which are directed at the
vapour. The fast-moving electrons ​collide ​with the ions in the vapour causing them to
become ​ionised ​(lose electrons), causing them to become charged.
3. Then, the ions are ​accelerated ​using an ​electric field​ as they are now charged.
4. Once they have been accelerated, they pass into the ​velocity selector​, where an electric
and magnetic field are acting perpendicular to each other. The fields ​exert forces on the
ions in opposite directions​ and only the ions for which the​ ​forces are balanced​ ​travel in a
straight line and then pass through into the separation chamber. This results in only
particles travelling at a particular speed progressing into the next part of the mass
spectrometer.
5. In the separation chamber, there is a ​uniform magnetic field​ which exerts a force on the
ions ​perpendicular ​to their direction of travel, causing them to follow a ​circular path​ and
hit a screen, where the radius of their circular path can be measured.

The radius of the path of the ions is used to determine their ​mass-to-charge ratios​, which are
used to identify the sample.

8.134 - Radius of the path for a charged particle in a magnetic field

The force exerted by a magnetic field on a charged particle is ​always perpendicular to its motion of
travel​, which causes charged particles to follow a ​circular path ​when in a magnetic field, because
the force induced by the magnetic field acts as a ​centripetal force​.

By combining the formulas for centripetal force and magnetic force on a charged particle, you can
derive the formula to find the radius of the particle’s circular path:
2
F = B Qv F = mvr
2
B Qv = mvr
mv
r = BQ

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
You can simplify the equation above further by using the fact: ​p = mv

p
r = BQ
Where ​p ​is the particle’s momentum, ​Q​ is its charge and ​B​ is the magnetic flux density.

8.135 - Applications of conservation laws

During particle interactions, the following properties ​must ​always ​be conserved​:
● Charge
● Energy
● Momentum

To show that the above properties are conserved in a particle interaction, you must find the value
of each property before and after the interaction and make sure they are ​equal​.
For example, beta-minus decay:
n → p + e− + ν e
Charge Explanation

Before interaction 0 A neutron has no charge.

After interaction 1-1+0=0 The charge of a proton is +1, an electron is -1 and

an electron antineutrino is 0. These sum to 0.

Change 0 The charge is conserved as required.

You can observe the movement of ​charged particles​ by looking at the ​particle tracks​ from a cloud
or bubble chamber. Both of these devices rely on the fact that charged particles leave a trail of
ionised particles in their path, and these ionised particles can be detected.

A ​bubble chamber​ is formed of a tank filled with superheated liquid hydrogen, which ​forms
bubbles around any ionised particles​ created as a result of the movement of a ​charged particle​.
Therefore, by observing the path created by these visible bubbles you can see the path taken by
moving, charged particles. As the tank is placed in a ​magnetic field​, charged particles can be
seen to take ​circular paths​.

Image source: ​Rice University​, ​CC BY 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
You can analyse bubble chamber tracks in the following ways:
➔ Find the ​radius ​of curvature of tracks​ - this will allow you to find out certain
characteristics of the particle you are observing by using the following equation (which is
derived above):
mv
r = BQ

➔ Find the ​direction ​of curvature ​- this will allow you to find out whether a particle has a
positive or negative charge by using ​Fleming’s left hand rule​ ​(covered in topic 7.122).​
➔ Analyse interactions​ - you see what particle interactions occur by looking at the shape of
particle tracks:
◆ If the tracks ​stop suddenly​ - particles have ​collided
◆ If the tracks abruptly ​change direction​ - particles have ​collided
◆ If the tracks look like they ​have come from nothing​ (as seen in the red and blue
tracks highlighted below) - particles have been ​created ​from an ​uncharged
particle​ (photon) which ​doesn’t create tracks​ in a bubble chamber

Image source: ​CERN

8.136 - Investigating the structure of nucleons

When investigating an object, you ​must ​use waves with a wavelength similar in size​ to that of the
object you are investigating. You can find the wavelength of particles by using the de Broglie
relation, which shows that a particle’s momentum and wavelength are inversely proportional:
h
λ= p
Where ​λ​ is the de Broglie wavelength, ​h​ is the Planck constant and ​p​ is the momentum of the particle.

By looking at the De Broglie relation, you can see that ​the smaller the de Broglie wavelength
needed, the higher the energy​ (/momentum) of the particle required.

Nucleons are incredibly small, around 1.6 fm (​10​-15​)! Because of this, you must use ​very small
wavelengths​ when investigating them, meaning the particles you use will have ​extremely high
energies​.

8.137 - Creation and annihilation of matter and antimatter particles

In the theory of special relativity Einstein proved that ​mass and energy are interchangeable​ and
can be related by the following equation:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 ΔE = Δmc2
Where ​E ​is energy, ​m ​is mass and ​c ​is the speed of light in a vacuum.

This means that at any time, ​mass and energy can be exchanged​. This can be seen through the
following processes which occur at the subatomic scale:

Pair production ​is where a photon is converted into an equal amount of matter and antimatter.
This can only occur when the photon has an energy greater than the total rest energy of both
particles, any excess energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the particles.

Annihilation ​is where a particle and its corresponding antiparticle collide, as a result their masses
are converted into energy. This energy, along with the kinetic energy of the two particles is
released in the form of 2 photons moving in opposite directions in order to conserve momentum.

8.138 - eV as units for energy and eV/c​2​ as units for mass

The ​electronvolt (eV)​ is a unit of energy, usually used to express small energies. 1 eV is equal to
​
the ​kinetic energy of an electron accelerated across a potential difference of 1 V​ or 1.6 x 10​-19 J.

To express the amount of energy present in particle interactions, it is usually more useful to use:
● MeV ​(Megaelectronvolts) - this is equivalent to ​1.6 x 10​-13​ J
● GeV ​(Gigaelectronvolts) - this is equivalent to ​1.6 x 10​-10​ J

You can convert ​from ​joules ​to ​MeV or GeV​ by ​dividing ​the value by either 1.6 x 10​-13​ J (for MeV)
or 1.6 x 10​-10​ J (for GeV).
You can convert ​from ​MeV or GeV ​to ​joules​ by ​multiplying ​the value by either 1.6 x 10​-13​ J (for
MeV) or 1.6 x 10​-10​ J (for GeV).

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
By rearranging the mass-energy equivalence formula so that mass is the subject, you can see that
mass can have the units ​j/c​2​ (where the units of c have not been simplified further).
E = mc2
m = cE2

If you are using MeV or GeV as the units of energy instead of joules, the ​unit of mass​ would
become: ​MeV/c​2​ or ​GeV/c​2​.

You can convert ​from ​kg ​to ​MeV/c​2​ or GeV/c​2​ by ​dividing ​the value by either 1.6 x 10​-13​ J (for
MeV) or 1.6 x 10​-10​ J (for GeV) and then ​multiplying ​it by ​c2​​ (9 x 10​16​ m​2​s​-4​).
➔ This is equivalent to ​just multiplying ​by 5.625 x 10​29​ (for MeV/c​2​) or 5.625 x 10​26​ (for
GeV/c​2​).

You can convert ​from ​MeV/c​2​ or GeV/c​2​ ​to ​kg ​by ​multiplying ​the value by either 1.6 x 10​-13​ J (for
MeV) or 1.6 x 10​-10​ J (for GeV)and then ​dividing ​it by ​c2​​ (9 x 10​16​ m​2​s​-4​).
➔ This is equivalent to ​just multiplying ​by 8/45 x 10​-29​ (for MeV/c​2​) or 8/45 x 10​-26​ (for
GeV/c​2​).

8.139 - Relativistic increase in particle lifetimes

When particles are travelling at speeds that are comparable to the speed of light (​relativistic
speeds​), some of their properties appear to change. One of these properties is the length of their
lifetimes, this is due to a process known as ​time dilation​, which occurs as a consequence of
special relativity. Time dilation causes time to run at ​different speeds depending on the motion of
an observer.

As a consequence of time dilation, the lifetime of a particle moving at relativistic speeds recorded
by a stationary observer would be ​longer ​than the actual time (as suggested by predictions).

Muon decay​ provides ​experimental evidence​ for time dilation because muons enter the
atmosphere at very high speeds and so experience significant time dilation, which affects how
quickly they decay. Muons are formed in the upper atmosphere and have a lifetime of around ​2 μs​,
which suggests that as they travel to the surface of the Earth, most would decay before reaching
sea level, however experimental evidence showed the opposite to be true. Most muons (around
80%) were still present upon reaching sea level, even though more than 2 μs had passed to an
external observer. This can only be explained by ​time dilation​ as the muons are travelling at close
to the speed of light.

Time dilation​ also occurs in the context of ​accelerator collision experiments​ as particles are
moving are speeds comparable to the speed of light. This means that their lifetimes (as observed
by a stationary observer) are ​longer ​so particles travel for longer than expected (when taking their
usual lifetimes into account) and so can interact with more particles.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
8.140 - The standard quark-lepton model
All particles can be classified as either ​hadrons​, ​leptons ​or ​photons​. The differentiating property
between hadrons and leptons is that ​leptons are fundamental particles​, meaning they cannot be
broken down any further, also they ​do not​ experience the strong nuclear force (one of the four
fundamental forces). On the other hand, hadrons are formed of ​quarks ​(quarks are fundamental
particles), and hadrons experience the strong nuclear force. Whereas photons are the ​fundamental
particles which make up light.

Hadrons​ can be further separated into baryons, antibaryons and mesons. ​Baryons ​are formed of 3
quarks, ​antibaryons​ are formed of 3 antiquarks while ​mesons​ are formed from a quark and
antiquark.

The classification of matter and antimatter is summarised below:

In the standard model there are 6 types of quarks:

● Up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom (as shown below).

The ​top quark​ was ​predicted by the symmetry of the standard model​, which implied that there
existed a particle which had yet to be observed. Due to the symmetry of the model, experiments
were carried out and the top quark was finally discovered.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
8.141 - Particles and antiparticles
For ​every ​type of particle there is an ​antiparticle​ which has the ​same rest energy ​and ​mass​ but all
its other ​properties are the ​opposite​ ​to the particle’s. For example, the positron is the antiparticle
of the electron, and an electron antineutrino is the antiparticle of a neutrino; this is how their
properties compare:
Particle Mass (kg) Rest energy (Mev) Charge (C)

Electron ( e− ) 9.11 ✕ 10−31 0.511 − 1.6 ✕ 10−19

Positron ( e+ ) 9.11 ✕ 10−31 0.511 + 1.6 ✕ 10−19

Electron neutrino ( ν e ) 0 0

Electron antineutrino ( ν e ) 0 0

8.142 - Determining whether particle interactions are possible

A particle interaction is ​only ​possible if ​all ​conversation laws are obeyed​. Along with the
conversation of energy and momentum, the following properties must be conserved in a particle
interaction:
● Charge
● Baryon number​ - this shows whether a particle is a baryon (its baryon number is 1),
antibaryon (-1) or not a baryon (0).
● Lepton number​ - this shows whether it is a lepton (its lepton number is 1), antilepton (-1)
or not a lepton (0).

To show that these properties are obeyed in an interaction, you must find the value of each
property before and after the interaction and make sure they are equal.

As an example consider this particle interaction,

p → n + e+ + υ e
Charge Baryon number Lepton number Explanation

Before 1 1 0 The proton has a charge of +1. As a

interaction proton is a baryon, it has a baryon
number of +1 and lepton number of 0.

After 0+1+0=1 1+0+0=1 0+1-1=0 The positron (e​+​) has a charge of +1,
interaction while the neutron and electron neutrino
have no charge.
As the neutron is a baryon it has a
baryon number of +1.
The positron is an antilepton so has a
lepton number of -1, while the neutrino is
a lepton so has a lepton number of +1.

Change 0 0 0 Charge, baryon number, and lepton

number are conserved.
All the above conservation laws are obeyed therefore this interaction is possible.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
8.143 - Particle equations
You must be able to ​write ​and ​interpret ​particle equations given the relevant​ particle symbols​. For
example, the following equation shows the ​alpha decay​ ​(discussed in topic 11)​ of uranium (U) into
thorium (Th) and an alpha particle (α):

You can check whether the interaction above is possible by considering the charge, baryon
number and lepton number before and after the interaction.

Charge Baryon number Lepton number

Before 92 238 0
interaction

After 90+2=92 234+4=238 0

interaction

Change 0 0 0

As the conservation laws are obeyed, this interaction is ​possible​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt-edu https://bit.ly/pmt-cc