ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING QUANTITY
 An alternating quantity (current I or voltage V) is one whose direction alternates on a regular
basis and whose magnitude fluctuates constantly over time between zero and a maximum value.
 Some graphical representation for alternating quantities:

COMPARISON OF AC AND DC:

Alternate current(AC) Direct current(DC)

Changes direction periodically

Flows only in one direction

Can be Generated by using AC Generator. Can be Generated by using DC Generator, Battery,

solar panels.

Inverter converts AC into DC. Rectifier converts AC into DC.

Can be controlled using Transformer. Cannot be controlled using Transformer.

EQUATION FOR I AND V:

 Alternating current or voltage varying as sine or cosine function can be written as:
I = I0 sinωt or I = I0 cosωt
where
I = Instantaneous value of current at time t,
I0 = Amplitude or peak value
 = Angular frequency in rad/sec
  Standard definitions:
1. Amplitude: Peak value, often known as the amplitude of current, is the greatest value of
current in either direction. It is represented by Io
2. Time Period: Periodic time, also known as the current's time period, is the amount of time
that an alternating current needs to run through one cycle of variation.
3. Frequency: The frequency of an alternating current is defined as the number of cycles it
completes in a second.
 SI UNIT : (cycle/s) or (Hz)
 In India : f = 50 Hz , supply voltage = 220 volt
 In USA : f = 60 Hz , supply voltage = 110 volt
4. Phase: Phase refers to the physical quantity that, at any one time, expresses both the
direction and the instantaneous value of an alternating quantity. It has a radian unit and is a
dimensionless quantity.
Example:

Initial phase = ϕ (It does not change with time)

Instantaneous phase = (ωt±ϕ) (It changes with time)

IMPORTANT VALUES OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES:

1. Peak values/Maximum value:
The maximum value of alternating quantity (I or V) is defined as peak value. It may or may not be
equal to amplitude.
Some common examples:

2. Average values:
  The value of DC that would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in the same
period of time as the AC would send the same amount via the same circuit is equal to the
mean value of A.C. during any half cycle, whether positive or negative.

 The average value of alternating quantity for one complete cycle is zero.
 It is the area of i-t graph from t1 to t2.
 Average value of current for half cycle:

 Average value of I = I0 sinωt over the positive half cycle:

Iavg=0.637I0
Similarly, Eavg=2E0/π=0.637E0
 Important formulae :
1. <sinƟ> =<cosƟ> = 0 (for full cycle)
𝜋
2. <sinƟ> = <cosƟ> = (for half cycle)
2
2 2 1
3. <sin Ɵ> = <cos Ɵ>= 2 (for full / half cycle)

3. Root mean square value of current:

 The value of DC that, when applied to the same resistance for the same amount of time,
would produce the same amount of heat that alternating current does when it passes through
the same resistance is known as the root mean square value of current.

 RMS value of sinusoidal ac:

 Calculation of mean and rms values for some specific cases of A.C.:
a. For the output of a half wave rectifier:
 b. For the out-put of a full wave rectifier:

c. For the square wave:

4. Form factor and peak factor: Form factor is defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value of the ac to its
average for half cycle. Peak factor is the ratio of peak value to r.m.s. value.

PHASOR AND PHASOR DIAGRAM:

 A diagram representing alternating current and voltage (of same frequency) as vectors (phasor)
with the phase angle between them is called phasor diagram.

Let V=V0sinωt and I=I0sin(ωt +ϕ)

 Phasors are represented by two arrows as in figure (a). The highest value of a quantity is
represented by the phasor length. The quantity's instantaneous value is represented by the
projection of a phasor on the y-axis.

ADVANTAGES OF AC:
 A.C. is less expensive than D.C.
 It is simple to convert A.C. to D.C. (via rectifier).
 With the use of a choke coil, A.C. is readily controlled.
 A.C. may be sent with minimal power loss across extended distances.
 A transformer can be used to increase or decrease A.C.

MEASUREMENT OF AC:
Alternating current and voltages are measured by A.C. ammeter and A.C. voltmeter respectively. Working
of these instruments is based on heating effect of current, hence they are also called hot wire instruments.

D.C. meter A.C. meter

Moving coil instrument Hot wire instrument
Based on magnetic effect of current Based on heating effect of current
Reads average value Reads r.m.s. value
If it is used in A.C. circuit, then they reads If it is used in both A.C. or D.C. then meter
zero because average value of A.C is zero works properly as it measures rms value.
Uniform Separation is there in the scale Non-Uniform Separation is there in the scale.
Note:
Why an ordinary moving coil ammeter used for d.c., cannot be used to measure a.c?
Answer: Alternating current changes in magnitude and direction and the mean value of ac over a complete
cycle is zero. Therefore moving coil ammeter will always read zero when connected in an ac circuit of any
frequency. This is the reason why an ordinary moving coil ammeter used for DC, cannot be used to
measure AC.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AC CIRCUITS:

1. A.C. VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR:
Let a.c. voltage applied is
v = vm sint …(i)
where vm is the maximum value of applied voltage (or amplitude of oscillating potential
difference) and  is the angular frequency.
 Vm
where Im= is the amplitude of current and is also Ohm’s law, which for resistors, works equally
𝑅
well for both ac and dc voltages
 It is evident from Equations (i) and (ii) that the voltage across and current through the
resistor are in the same phase as both v and i reach zero, minimum and maximum values at
the same time.
 The sum of the instantaneous current values over one complete cycle is ZERO and thus the
average of the current over one complete cycle is ZERO but it does not mean that the
average power consumed is zero and that there is no dissipation of electrical energy.
 The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is
p = I 2R = Im2Rsin2t ... (iii)
 The average value of ‘p’ over a cycle is

2. AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR:

An inductor and an ac source are connected in Figure. We'll suppose that this inductor has very
little resistance even though inductor windings often have a significant amount of resistance.
As a result, the circuit is solely inductive ac.
Let the voltage across the source be V = Vmsinωt------(i)

𝐿𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 V 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛t
V= 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿
= 𝐿

…..(ii)

….(iii)

Where,
where XL is known as inductive reactance.
 Inductive reactance (XL):
 It is the resistance offered by inductor to the flow of a.c.
 The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit is
ohm (Ω).
 Similar to how resistance restricts current in purely resistive circuits, inductive reactance
does the same in purely inductive circuits.
  The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and to the frequency of
the current.
𝜋
From Equation (i) & (iii), it is clear that current through inductor lags behind the voltage by .
2
 The instantaneous power supplied to inductor:

Average power over a complete cycle

PL  0 as < sin2t > = 0
 The frequency of oscillation of power in inductive (A.C) circuit is twice the frequency of
oscillation of source voltage or current.

3. AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR:

 In a DC circuit, current will flow through a capacitor for the brief period of time needed to
charge it when it is connected to a voltage source. The voltage across the capacitor plates
rises as charge builds up on them, resisting the current. In other words, as a capacitor charges,
it will restrict or oppose the current in a DC circuit. There is no more current flow across the
circuit after the capacitor is fully charged.
 The capacitor restricts or regulates the current but does not entirely stop the passage of
charge when it is connected to an ac source. Every half cycle, the current reverses and the
capacitor is alternately charged and discharged.

Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any time.

𝑞
The instantaneous voltage v across the capacitor is v = 𝐶 …(i)
𝑞
From Kirchhoff’s rule, 𝐶
= vm sint , q = C.vm.sint ... (ii)
𝑑𝑞 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Current, I= 𝑑𝑡
= Cvm × cost= 𝑋𝑐
sin (t + 2 ) (iii)
1 1
Xc = C = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶, where Xc is the capacitive reactance
 Capacitive reactance (XC):
 It is resistance offered by the capacitor to the flow of alternating current.
 The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit is
ohm (Ω).
 Just as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit, the capacitive
reactance does the same in a purely capacitive circuit.
 It is inversely proportional to the frequency and the capacitance.
𝜋
From Eq. (ii) and (iii), it is clear that the current through a capacitor is ahead of voltage by 2 .
  Phasor diagram for voltage and current for AC source applied to a purely capacitive circuit

 The power supplied to the capacitor at any instant t, is

 Average power supplied to capacitor, over a complete cycle

 The frequency of power in capacitive (A.C) circuit is twice the frequency of oscillation of
source voltage or current.

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT:

 A circuit with the resistance R, inductance coil L, and capacitance capacitor C connected in series with
an alternating current source with peak value E0 is depicted in the figure.

 If q is the charge in the capacitor and I is the current at time t, then applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

 Phasor Diagram Solution:

I = I R = I L = I C ... (i)
The voltage across the resistor given by VR = I × R ... (ii) is in phase with its current.
The voltage across the inductor VL = IXL = I × L = I × 2f × L

As discussed earlier, VL is ahead of I L (i.e. I) by 2
The voltage across the capacitor given by
1 1
VC=IXC = =
C 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 𝜋
Voltage in capacitor is lagging behind the current by
2
The phase difference between voltage across inductor and capacitor is . The voltage between inductor
and capacitor is equal to VC – VL considering VC>VL.
The total voltage is given by:

 Phase relationship between V and I

 Variation of reactance with Frequency of Source:-

1. The resistance R, does not depend upon source frequency

2. XL = L = 2fL, as source frequency f increases, XL increases linearly. XL  f

 1 1
3. Xc = C = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 , XC decreases as source frequency f increases.

4.

 Resonance:
 The resonance phenomena is one of the series RLC circuit's intriguing features. Any system
that tends to oscillate at a specific frequency is likely to experience resonance. The natural
frequency of the system is this frequency. The oscillation amplitude of such a system is found
to be large when it is driven by an energy source at a frequency that is close to the natural
frequency.
 A constant frequency for the circuit, known as resonant frequency.
1 1
When XC = XL, it means C = L , 𝑓 = 2√𝐿𝐶
= fo or fr ….(viii)
 At resonance frequency Z = Zmin = R or, the current amplitude is maximum, I=V/Z=V/R.

 The impedance is minimum and purely resistive when the source frequency becomes equal
to resonant frequency.
 Variation of Z with f:
(i) If f < fr then XL < XC  circuit nature capacitive,  (negative)
(ii) At f = fr then XL = XC  circuit nature, Resistive,  = zero
(iii) If f > fr then XL > XC  circuit nature is inductive,  (positive)
  Half power frequencies and band width:
1. Half power frequencies are those at which the circuit's total power (the power at
resonance) is half of its maximum power.
2. The current in the circuit at half power frequencies (HPF) is 1/√2 or 0.707 or 70.7% of
maximum current (current at resonance).

3. f1 is also called as lower half power frequency. At this frequency the circuit is capacitive.
4. f2 is called upper half power frequency. It is greater than 0. At this frequency the circuit
is inductive.
5. Band width ():The difference of half power frequencies 1 and 2 is called bandwidth
() and  2 1.

 Quality factor or Q-factor:

 The circuit's quality factor, or Q-factor, determines a series resonant circuit's characteristics.
 The resonance curve's sharpness is determined by the Q-factor; a higher Q-factor
corresponds to a sharper resonance curve, and vice versa.
 This factor gives relative information about stored energy and lost energy per cycle.
 Since,

So,

 Q value is defined as XL/R where XL is the inductive reactance of the circuit, at resonance.
More Q value implies more sharpness of  v/S  curve.

 It is a unit less and dimension less quantity.

 According to figure, if 'R' is decreasing means Q-factor or sharpness will increase in the circuit.

Note:
It is crucial to remember that a circuit can only display the resonance phenomenon if both L and C are
present. The total source voltage appears across R when the voltages across L and C cancel each other out
(since they are both out of phase). At that point, the current amplitude is Vm/R. This implies that an RL or
RC circuit cannot experience resonance.

COMBINATION OF COMPONENTS (R-L OR R-C OR L-C):

TERM R-L R-C L-C

Circuit

Phasor diagram
 Phase difference in
between V & I

Impedance

Variation of Z With f

At very high f Z ≈ XL Z ≈ R (XC → 0) Z≈X

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS: THE POWER FACTOR:

When a voltage V = Vm sinωt applied to a series RLC circuit, a current flows in the circuit given by I = Im
sin(ωt + ϕ).

 Thus, the cosine of the phase angle ϕ between the voltage and current as well as the current
and voltage all affect the average power dissipated.
 The terms cos is known as power factor as it determines the power consumed in the circuit.
Case-1: Purely resistive circuit:  = 0°, so cos = 1, the power dissipated is maximum. Thus
maximum power consumed P=Vrms Irms
Case-2: Purely Inductive or Capacitive Circuit: The phase difference  /2. Thus power factor
cos = 0. Thus power consumed is ZERO. Such a current known as watt less current.
Case-3: In a series LCR Circuit, power dissipated is given by
 so  may be non-zero in a RL circuit or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases power is
dissipated only in resistance.
Case-4 : Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance XC – XL = 0,  = 0, therefore
cos = 1 and P = I2R. That is maximum power is dissipated in a circuit, (through R) at resonance

WATTLESS CURRENT:
 In an alternating current circuit, when R = 0 and cosϕ = 0, the power consumed is zero, or Pav = 0.
The current flowing through such a circuit is known as the wattless current, and the circuit itself is
referred to as wattless.
OR
 The component of current which does not contribute to the average power dissipation is called
wattless current.

 The average of wattless component over one cycle is zero.

 Amplitude of wattless current = i sin

CHOKE COIL:
 A rheostat can be used to lower the current in a circuit whenever it is necessary in circuits with
direct current sources. However, doing so will result in the loss of heat with a power equal to I2R,
where I is the current flowing through the circuit with resistance R.
 By substituting an inductor coil in place of a resistance in AC circuits, we can regulate voltage and
current without wasting unnecessary energy. A choke coil is an inductor coil with a low resistance,
preferably zero.
 Principle: The chock coil is constructed from a soft-iron laminated core with thick, insulated
copper wire twisted tightly and in a lot of turns. It provides a large reactance XL = 2πfL, to the a.c.
flow reducing the current.
 Working: An electrical device with resistance R is connected to an a.c. source and has a choke
placed in series with it. So, an LR-circuit is formed.

If resistance of choke coil = r (very small), then the current in the circuit will be:

I=E/Z where
 So due to large inductance L of the coil, the current in the circuit is decreased appreciably.
However, due to small resistance of the coil r,
The power loss in the choke

Note:
In an AC circuit, a capacitor with an appropriate capacitance can be used in place of a choke coil because
a capacitor uses zero power on average. Therefore, a capacitor can lower current in an AC circuit without
consuming any power, just like a choke coil.
Choke coils are utilized because the cost of a capacitor is significantly higher than the cost of an inductance
with the same reactance.

TRANSFORMERS:
 Transformers are based upon mutual induction which transform an alternating voltage from one to
another of greater or smaller value and vice versa.
 A transformer consists of two coils wound on a soft iron core, called primary and secondary coils.
Let number of turns in these coils are Np and Ns respectively.
dф
Induced emf across the primary coil εp = -Np 𝑑𝑡
dф
Similarly induced emf across secondary εs= -Ns 𝑑𝑡
From these equations

Note:
The above relations are based upon following two assumptions:
(i) Primary current and resistance are small.
(ii) The same flux per turn links from both the primary and secondary coil.
  Energy losses in transformer:
In actual transformers, some energy losses occur due to following reasons.
1. Flux leakage
2. Resistance of the windings
3. Eddy currents
4. Hysteresis
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
 Efficiency of transformer:  = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
× 100%
𝑉𝐼
 =𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠 × 100%
𝑝 𝑝

 Use of Transformers in Transmission and Distribution of Energy over Long Distance: Because the
generator's voltage output is increased, the current is decreased, which lowers the I2R loss. After
that, it is sent over great distances to a substation in the vicinity of the customers. The voltage is
reduced there. Before 240 V power enters our houses, it is further reduced at utility poles and
distributing substations.

Achiever I:
1. The equation of an alternating voltage is V = 100√2 sin 100t volt. The RMS value of voltage and
frequency will be respectively:
(1) 100 V, 50 Hz
(2) 50 V, 100 Hz
(3) 150 V, 50 Hz
(4) 200 V, 50 Hz

2. The average value of current for the current shown for time period 0 to T/2 is:

(1) I0/√2
(2) I0/2
(3) I0/√3
(4) 2I0/ √3

3. Equation of alternating current is given by I= 10√2sin(100πt+π/6). The time taken by current to reach
the root mean square value from t=0 is t'. Then the value of t' (in s) is:
 (1) 1/1200
(2) 1/250
(3) 1/200
(4) 1/800

4. What is the approximate peak value of an alternating current producing four times the heat
produced per second by a steady current of 2 A in a resistor?
(1) 2.8 A
(2) 4.0 A
(3) 5.6 A
(4) 8.0 A

5. If current I1 = 3A sin t and I2 = 4A cos t, then I3 is:

(1) 5A sin (t + 53°)

(2) 5A sin (t + 37°)
(3) 5A sin (t + 45°)
(4) 5A sin (t + 30°)

6. In a series LCR circuit which is connected to an AC voltage source, choose the incorrect statement:
(1) Algebraic sum of instantaneous voltage across L, C, R is a variable
(2) VL(inst)+VC(inst)+VR(inst)=Vsource(inst)
(3) Voltage across inductor, capacitor, resistance behave as a vector
(4) Current is same in inductor, capacitor and resistance

7. In a box Z of unknown elements, L or R or any other combination, an ac voltage

is applied and current in the circuit was found to be

. The unknown element in the box may be:

(1) Only capacitor

(2) Inductor and resistor both
(3) Either capacitor, resistor and inductor or only capacitor and resistor
 (4) Only resistor

8. What is the r.m.s. value of an alternating current which when passed through a resistor produces
heat which is thrice of that produced by a direct current of 2 amperes in the same resistor?
(1) 6 amp
(2) 2 amp
(3) 3.46 amp
(4) 0.66 amp

9. If a step up transformer have turn ratio 5, frequency 50 Hz root mean square value of potential
difference on primary 100 volts and the resistance of the secondary winding is 500 W then the
peak value of voltage in secondary winding will be (the efficiency of the transformer is hundred
percent)
(1) 500√2
(2) 10√2
(3) 50√2
(4) 20√𝟐

10. A 12  resistor and a 0.21 H inductor are connected in series to an a.c. source operating at 20 V,
50 cycle/ second. The phase angle between current and source voltage is:
(1) 30°
(2) 40°
(3) 80°
(4) 90°

Achiever II:
1. Impedance of the circuit shown in the figure is:

(1) 100 
(2) 50 
(3) 30 
(4) 40 

2. The graph given below depict the dependence of two reactive impedances X1 and X2 on the
frequency of the alternating e.m.f. applied individually to them. We can say that:
 A. X1 is an inductor and X2 is a capacitor
B. X1 is a resistor and X2 is a capacitor
C. X1 is a capacitor and X2 is an inductor
D. X1 is an inductor and X2 is a resistor

3. If resistance R = 10 , inductance L = 2 mH and capacitance C = 5 F are connected in series to an

AC source of frequency 50 Hz, then at resonance the impedance of circuit is:
(1) Zero
(2) 10 
(3) 1000 
(4) 10 k

4. In the circuit shown in figure the current measured by ammeter is:

(1) 1 A
(2) 2 A
(3) 3 A
(4) Zero

5. Alternating current is flowing in inductance L and resistance R. The frequency of source is ω/2π.
Which of the following statement is correct?
(1) For low frequency the limiting value of impedance is L.
(2) For high frequency the limiting value of impedance is ωL.
(3) For high frequency the limiting value of impedance is R.
(4) For low frequency the limiting value of impedance is ωL.

6. An LCR series circuit with a resistance of 100 is connected to an ac source of 200 V and angular
frequency 300 rad/s. When only capacitor is removed, the current lags behind the voltage by 60°.
When only the inductor is removed the current leads the voltage by 60°. The average power
dissipated is:
(1) 50 W
(2) 100 W
(3) 200 W
(4) 400 W

7. For the circuit shown in the figure the current through the inductor is 1.6 A, while the current
through the condenser is 0.4 A, then the current I drawn from the source is:
 (1) 2.2 A
(2) 1.65 A
(3) 1.2 A
(4) 2.0 A

8. In an oscillating L-C circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor is Q. The charge on the capacitor,
when the energy is stored equally between the electric and magnetic field is:
(1) Q/2
(2) Q/√𝟐
(3) 3Q
(4) Q/3

9. If power factor is 1/2 in a series RL circuit. R = 100 , then L is (f = 50 Hz):

(1) H
(2) √𝟑/H
(3) /√3 H
(4) 2H

10. A step down transformer is used on a 1000 V line to deliver 20 A at 120 V at the secondary coil. If
the efficiency of the transformer is 80% the current drawn from the line is:
(1) 3 A
(2) 30 A
(3) 0.3 A
(4) 2.4 A