NETWORK LAYER

Addressing 2
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IP Addresses - Types and Classes
IP addresses are fundamental to networking
as they uniquely identify devices on a
network and enable communication. IP
addresses are categorized into different types
and classes, each serving specific purposes in
addressing and routing data packets. Let's
explore IP address types and classes in detail:
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IP Address Types:
Unicast Address: A unicast address refers to a single
sender and a single receiver. It's used for one-to-one
communication in a network.
Broadcast Address: A broadcast address is used to
send data packets to all devices on a network
segment. In IPv4, broadcast addresses are used for
network discovery and some network management
functions. However, IPv6 does not support broadcast
communication.
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Multicast Address: A multicast address is used
for one-to-many or many-to-many
communication. It allows efficient distribution
of data to a specific group of devices
interested in receiving the data.
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IP Address Classes (IPv4):
IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes: A,
B, C, D, and E. These classes determine the
size of the network and host portions of the IP
address.
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…Class A: The first bit of a class A address is
always 0. The network portion occupies the
first octet, while the remaining three octets
represent the host portion. Class A addresses
are designed for large networks, and the first
octet range is 1 to 126.
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Class B: The first two bits of a class B address
are always 10. The first two octets represent
the network portion, and the remaining two
octets are for the host portion. Class B
addresses are suitable for medium-sized
networks, and the first octet range is 128 to
191.
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Class C: The first three bits of a class C address
are always 110. The first three octets are used
for the network portion, and the last octet is for
the host portion. Class C addresses are used
for smaller networks, and the first octet range
is 192 to 223.
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Class D: The first four bits of a class D address
are always 1110. Class D addresses are
reserved for multicast groups and are not
assigned to individual devices or used for
regular communication.
Class E: The first four bits of a class E address
are always 1111. Class E addresses are
reserved for experimental and research
purposes.
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IP Address Exhaustion and IPv6:
The rapid growth of the internet and the
limited address space of IPv4 led to IP address
exhaustion. To address this issue, IPv6 was
introduced with a significantly larger address
space (128 bits), allowing for an enormous
number of unique addresses.
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IPv6 Address Types:
Global Unicast: Equivalent to unicast
addresses in IPv4, used for one-to-one
communication on a global scale.
Link-Local: Used for communication within a
single network segment and does not require
configuration from a central authority.
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Site-Local: Deprecated in favor of Unique
Local Addresses (ULAs), intended for
communication within a specific site or
organization.
Multicast and Anycast: Similar to IPv4,
multicast addresses are used for one-to-many
communication, while anycast addresses are
used to send data to the nearest device
among a group.
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Understanding IP address types and classes is
essential for designing and managing
networks efficiently. IPv6 has largely mitigated
the challenges posed by IPv4 address
exhaustion, providing ample addresses for the
growing number of connected devices.
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IP Addresses: IPv4 vs. IPv6
IP addresses are numerical labels assigned to each
device connected to a network that uses the
Internet Protocol (IP) for communication. They play
a central role in the network layer by uniquely
identifying devices and enabling the routing of
data packets across the internet. There are two
main versions of IP addresses: IPv4 (Internet
Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol
version 6).
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IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit long and are typically
written as four decimal numbers separated by periods
(e.g., 192.168.1.1).
The total address space is limited to 2^32 unique
addresses, which leads to the depletion of available
addresses due to the rapid growth of the internet.
IPv4 addresses are classified into classes (A, B, C, D, E)
that determine the distribution of addresses and the
network size.
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IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit long and are
usually represented as eight groups of
hexadecimal numbers separated by colons
(e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
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The significantly larger address space of IPv6
(2^128) provides a practically unlimited
number of unique addresses.
IPv6 adoption is driven by the need for more
IP addresses and improved security and
efficiency features.
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Subnetting:
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger
IP network into smaller sub-networks
(subnets). It's a technique used to efficiently
allocate IP addresses and manage network
resources. Subnetting offers several benefits,
including efficient use of IP address space,
improved network performance, and
enhanced security.
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Subnetting involves the following

components:
Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is a 32-bit
value that divides an IP address into a
network portion and a host portion. It
determines the range of IP addresses
available within a subnet.
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…Subnet ID: The subnet ID is obtained by
applying the subnet mask to an IP address. It
identifies the specific subnet to which an IP
address belongs.
Host ID: The host ID represents the individual
device within a subnet. It is obtained by
taking the remaining bits of the IP address
after subnetting.
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CIDR Notation (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing):
CIDR notation is a compact way of
representing IP addresses and their
associated routing prefix. It allows network
administrators to efficiently allocate IP
address blocks and define routing policies.
CIDR notation includes the IP address followed
by a slash ("/") and the subnet mask prefix
length (in bits).
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For example:
192.168.1.0/24 represents the IP address
192.168.1.0 with a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0.
2001:0db8:85a3::/48 represents an IPv6
address with a prefix length of 48 bits.
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…CIDR notation is essential for routing

protocols, as it simplifies the
representation of IP address ranges and
assists routers in making efficient routing
decisions.
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In conclusion, IP addresses are critical for
network communication, and both IPv4 and
IPv6 versions serve unique purposes.
Subnetting allows for efficient IP address
allocation, and CIDR notation streamlines
routing and address management. These
concepts are vital for network administrators
to design, implement, and manage modern
network infrastructures effectively.
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Subnetting Example:
Let's consider a basic example of
subnetting a Class C IP address space,
192.168.1.0/24, into smaller subnets to
accommodate three different
departments in a small office: Sales,
Marketing, and IT.
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Step 1: Determine the Required Subnets

and Hosts:
Sales: 10 hosts
Marketing: 8 hosts
IT: 6 hosts
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Step 2: Determine the Number of Subnet

Bits:
We need to determine the number of
subnet bits required to accommodate the
largest department (Sales with 10 hosts).
The closest power of 2 greater than 10 is
16 (2^4), so we need at least 4 subnet
bits.
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Step 3: Calculate the New Subnet Mask:
The original subnet mask is /24 (8 bits for the
host portion).
With 4 subnet bits, the new subnet mask will
be /28 (8 bits + 4 bits = 12 bits for the subnet
portion).
The new subnet mask in decimal is
255.255.255.240.
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Step 4: Calculate the Subnet Ranges:
The original network range is 192.168.1.0 -
192.168.1.255.
With the new subnet mask, each subnet will
have 16 IP addresses (2^4 - 2 usable
addresses for hosts).
Calculate the subnet ranges for each
department:
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…Sales: 192.168.1.0/28 (192.168.1.0 -

192.168.1.15)
Marketing: 192.168.1.16/28 (192.168.1.16 -
192.168.1.31)
IT: 192.168.1.32/28 (192.168.1.32 -
192.168.1.47)
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Step 5: Assign IP Addresses:
Each department will have its own subnet
range.
The first IP address in each subnet is reserved
as the network address, and the last IP
address is reserved as the broadcast address.
Assign the remaining 14 usable IP addresses
to devices within each department.
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Summary:
In this beginner-friendly example, subnetting was
used to divide a Class C IP address space into
smaller subnets for three different departments.
Subnetting allowed for efficient utilization of IP
addresses and created separate address ranges
for each department. This basic example
demonstrates the concept of subnetting and how it
can be applied to address space allocation in a
simple network environment.