NETWORK LAYER

Routing and Protocols

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Introduction to Routing
What is Routing?
Routing is the process of determining the
best path for data packets to travel from
their source to their destination across a
network. It is a fundamental function of
the network layer in the OSI model.
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Why is Routing Important?

Routing enables data to traverse complex
networks, such as the internet, efficiently
and reliably.
It allows for scalability, fault tolerance,
and load balancing.
Routing decisions impact network
performance and security.
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Routing Basics
Destination Addresses
IP addresses are used to identify both the
source and destination of data packets in
routing.
The destination IP address in a packet
header helps routers make routing
decisions.
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Routing Tables
Routers maintain routing tables that
contain information about known
networks and the next-hop routers to
reach them.
These tables are crucial for making
routing decisions.
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Next-Hop Routing
In next-hop routing, routers forward
packets to the next-hop router on the
path to the destination.
The next-hop is determined using routing
tables.
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Types of Routing
Static Routing
In static routing, administrators manually
configure routing entries in routers' tables.
Suitable for small networks with simple
topologies but lacks adaptability.
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Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routing protocols automate the
process of updating routing tables based
on network changes.
Ideal for large and dynamic networks.
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Link-State vs. Distance Vector Routing

Link-state protocols (e.g., OSPF) focus on
the state of individual links.
Distance vector protocols (e.g., RIP) use
distance metrics to make routing
decisions.
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Routing Protocols
Introduction to Routing Protocols
Routing protocols are rules and algorithms
used by routers to exchange routing
information and make routing decisions.
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Common Routing Protocols

RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
RIP is a distance vector routing protocol.
RIP uses hop count as its metric.
RIP versions: RIPv1 and RIPv2.
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OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

OSPF is a link-state routing protocol.
OSPF uses a cost-based metric.
OSPF divides networks into areas for
scalability.
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BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

BGP is used for inter-domain routing in the
global internet.
BGP uses path attributes for routing
decisions.
BGP operates between Autonomous
Systems (AS).
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Interior vs. Exterior Routing Protocols

Interior routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF)
operate within a single autonomous
system.
Exterior routing protocols (e.g., BGP)
connect different autonomous systems.
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Routing Algorithm Considerations

Hop Count
Hop count measures the number of
routers a packet must traverse to reach its
destination.
Some routing protocols, like RIP, use hop
count as their metric.
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Metrics
Routing protocols use various metrics to
determine the best path, including
bandwidth, delay, cost, and reliability.
Administrative Distance
Administrative distance is a value assigned
to each routing protocol to prioritize routes
when multiple protocols are used.
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Routing Decision Process

Step 1: Destination IP Address Lookup
Routers examine the destination IP
address in a packet header.
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Step 2: Routing Table Search
Routers consult their routing tables to find
the best path to the destination.
Routing protocols update these tables
dynamically.
Step 3: Forwarding
Once the best path is determined, the
router forwards the packet to the next-hop
router.
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Dynamic Routing Protocols
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
RIP Characteristics
Distance vector protocol.
Uses hop count as the metric.
RIP Versions (RIPv1 and RIPv2)
RIPv2 supports CIDR and VLSM.
Offers improved security compared to RIPv1.
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OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

OSPF Characteristics
Link-state protocol.
Uses cost-based metrics.
OSPF Areas and Hierarchies
Divides networks into areas for scalability
and efficiency.
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BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
BGP Characteristics
Inter-domain routing protocol.
Uses path attributes for routing decisions.
BGP Peering and Autonomous Systems (AS)
BGP routers establish peering sessions to
exchange routing information.
Each organization or network is identified by
an Autonomous System (AS) number.
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Common Routing Issues and Solutions

Routing Loops
Routing loops occur when packets
continuously traverse a cycle of routers.
Prevented by techniques like split-horizon
and route poisoning.
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Route Aggregation
Route aggregation combines multiple IP
routes into a single summary route.
Reduces the size of routing tables and
conserves bandwidth.
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…Route Redistribution
Route redistribution allows routers using
different routing protocols to share routing
information.
Requires careful configuration to avoid
routing issues.
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In conclusion, routing and routing

protocols are fundamental to the proper
functioning of networks. Understanding
how data packets are directed from
source to destination, the types of routing,
and the role
 NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS
Network Layer Protocols: ICMP, ARP, and More
Network layer protocols play a vital role in
facilitating communication, troubleshooting,
and efficient data transmission across
networks. Let's explore some key network
layer protocols in detail:
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ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
ICMP is an integral part of the Internet Protocol
Suite (TCP/IP) and operates at the network
layer.
It is primarily used for reporting errors and
providing diagnostic information related to IP
packet processing.
 NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS
…ICMP messages are encapsulated within IP
packets and are usually generated by routers or
network devices.
Common uses of ICMP include "ping" (echo
request and reply) for testing network connectivity
and "traceroute" for determining the path taken by
packets to reach a destination.
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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
ARP is used for mapping IP addresses to MAC
addresses in a local network.
It allows devices to find the MAC address
associated with an IP address before sending
data on a network.
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RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):
RARP is the reverse of ARP. It is used to
determine the IP address of a device given its
MAC address.
RARP is less commonly used today, as it
requires a central server to maintain the
mapping between MAC and IP addresses.
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IPv4 vs. IPv6:
IPv4 uses ARP for address resolution, whereas
IPv6 uses the Neighbor Discovery Protocol
(NDP) for similar purposes.
NDP performs functions like ARP (address
resolution) and ICMP (error reporting) in IPv6
networks.
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IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol):
IGMP is used in IP networks to manage multicast
group membership.
It allows hosts to join or leave multicast groups and
informs routers about the group memberships.
Routers then use this information to forward
multicast traffic only to the hosts interested in
receiving it.
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Conclusion:
Network layer protocols like ICMP, ARP, RARP, and
others are essential for maintaining network
efficiency, diagnosing issues, and enabling smooth
data transmission. They provide the foundation for
various networking operations, from addressing
resolution to error reporting and multicast group
management. As networks evolve, these protocols
continue to play a critical role in ensuring effective
communication and network management.