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Geologic Time Scale
 LLeessssoonn AAggeennddaa
Introduction 01
Eons 02
Eras 03
Periods 04
Epoch 05
 Introduction
What is Geologic Time Scale?
The geologic time scale distinguishes
Earth's history based on life-forms that
existed at certain times since the planet's
formation.
The majority of these life forms are
discovered as fossils, which are the
remains or evidence of an organism from
the geologic past that have been
preserved in silt or rock.
Without fossils, geologists might not have
established that the world has a past that
predates humanity.
GGEEOOLLOOGGIICCAALL
EEOONNSS
 EEoonnss
what is an eon?

A geologic eon is the largest unit

of time for the geologic time scale.
A geologic eon can also be
referred to as “eonothems” or
simply “eons”.
Eons are hundreds, even
thousands, of years. Eons are
made up of shorter eras.
 There are 4 eons
recognized:
the Phanerozoic eon
the Proterozoic eon
the Archean eon
the Hadean eon.
Collectively, the Hadean,
Archean, and Proterozoic
are sometimes informally
referred to as the
"Precambrian."
We live during the Phanerozoic,
which means "visible life." This is the
interval of geological time
characterized by abundant, complex
fossilized remains. Being the
youngest eon of time, it is also very
well represented by rock at Earth's
surface.
Because of these two factors, most
paleontologists and geologists study
fossils and rocks from the
Phanerozoic eon.
 Precambrian Eon
More than 85% of earth's history falls under this supereon, from 4.6 billion years
ago to 540 million years ago.

Hadean Eon (4.6 Billion Years ago)

The solidification of the earth's continental and oceanic crust

Archean Eon (4 Billion Years ago)

The evolution of earth's first life forms

Proterozoic Eon (2.5 Billion Years ago)

The appearance of multi-celled animals and the gathering of
land masses to form continents
 Phanerozoic Eon
Cenozoic Era (65 Million Years ago - Now
This is the most recent among the eras of the Phanerozoic Era;
this era marks the age of mammals and the first human evolution.

Mesozoic Era (245 Million Years Ago)

This era marks the beginning of dinosaurs, mammals, birds, and
plants due to mass extinction.

Paleozoic Era (544 Million Years Ago)

The explosion of diverse marine life and the largest mass
extinction of marine organisms.
Hadean Hadean Eon, informal division of
Precambrian time occurring between

Eon about 4.6 billion and about 4.0 billion

years ago.

Characterized by the Earth’s initial

formation, the accretion of dust and
gases, frequent collisions of
planetesimals, and the subsequent
stabilization of Earth's core and crust,
along with the development of its
atmosphere and oceans.
Despite the surface instability, evidence such as zircon grains
dating back to about 4.4 billion years ago suggests the
presence of stable continents, liquid water, and temperatures
below 100 °C.

Debate exists on the timing and

composition of Earth's early
atmosphere, but evidence,
including zircon grains, suggests
its presence before 4.4 billion
years ago.
The Moon is also believed to
have formed during the
Hadean Eon, with a leading
theory proposing a collision
between Earth and a Mars-
sized celestial body that
ejected material forming the
Moon.
 Archean Eon
The Archean Eon, the
earlier of the two divisions
of Precambrian time,
spanned from about 4
billion to 2.5 billion years
ago, marking the period
when life first emerged on
Earth.
 Archean Eon
The Archean Eon
commenced around 4 billion
years ago with the formation
of Earth's crust, succeeding
the Hadean Eon, which was
characterized by Earth's
initial formation.
Records of Earth's primitive
atmosphere and oceans
appear in the earliest Archean,
during the Eoarchean Era.
Archean oceans likely formed
through the condensation of
water derived from volcanic
outgassing.
 Fossil evidence of the earliest
primitive life-forms, prokaryotic
microbes from the domains
Archaea and bacteria, dates
back to approximately 3.5–3.7
billion years ago. Fragments of
graphite hint at the possibility of
life emerging before 3.95 billion
years ago.
Cyanobacteria, such as blue-green
algae, played a pivotal role in
gradually increasing oxygen levels
during the Archean Eon. This
process was vital for the
development of Earth's atmosphere
from anoxic conditions.
Intense geological activity in the
Archean Eon led to the formation of
oceanic and island arc crust for 1.5
billion years.
Archean rocks, notably in
greenstone-granite belts, not only
preserve evidence of early Earth
processes but also host valuable
economic mineral deposits like
gold, silver, chromium, nickel,
copper, and zinc, contributing
significantly to the economies of
countries such as Canada,
Australia, and Zimbabwe.
 Additionally, by the Archean-
Proterozoic boundary, small
cratons had coalesced into
the supercontinent
Kenorland.
 The Proterozoic Eon started roughly
around 2.5 billion years ago and the
first complex lifeforms emerged
approximately 500 million years ago
when this eon came to an end.
Proterozoic The Great Oxygenation Event changed
the Earth's atmosphere during this time,
Eon paving the way for the emergence of
aerobic life forms. Glaciers also evolved
during this time. In the Neoproterozoic
era, some scientists even believe that
the Earth's surface became completely
frozen.
 The Proterozoic eon saw the
emergence of the first
multicellular organisms, including
the earliest algae. This eon's

Proterozoic fossils are minuscule.

Discovered in Gabon, West Africa,

Eon the Gabon macrofossils are
among the most famous from this
era. Flattened disks up to 17
centimeters long are among the
fossils. (2020, Alden).
GGEEOOLLOOGGIICCAALL
ERA
ERA
 Eras
what is an Era?

Era, a very long span of

geologic time; in formal
usage, the second longest
portions of geological
time (eons are the
longest)
In the Geologic Time Scale, Era is
generally divided on the basis of
the earth's biotic composition,
with the Phanerozoic Eon (i.e.
the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic Eras) representing the
period of Earth's history with
advanced life forms, and the
PreCambrian (or Proterozoic
and Hadean Eras) representing
the period before advanced life.
There are 3 known Major
types of Eras

Paleozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Cenozoic Era
 These eras were referred to as the
Paleozoic (meaning ancient life), the
Mesozoic (meaning middle life), and the
Cenozoic (meaning recent life) based on
their relative similarity with modern taxa.
Paleozoic Era (544 Million Years Ago)

The Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life) began with

the Cambrian Explosion, a relatively rapid
period of speciation that kicked off a long
period of life flourishing on Earth.
Vast amounts of life forms from the oceans
moved onto the land. Plants were the first to
make the move, followed by invertebrates. Not
long afterward, vertebrates took to the land.
Many new species appeared and thrived.
The supercontinent Rodinia broke apart early
on this era, but by the end of the era the
supercontinent Pangea was formed.
Mesozoic Era (245 Million Years Ago)

Mesozoic Era (Middle Life), which is also known as the

"age of the dinosaurs" since dinosaurs were the
dominant species of the age.
Another mass extinction marked the end of the
Mesozoic Era, whether triggered by a giant meteor or
comet impact, volcanic activity, more gradual climate
change, or various combinations of these factors.
All the dinosaurs and many other animals, especially
herbivores, died off, leaving niches to be filled by new
species in the coming era.
At the beginning of this era there is a supercontinent
called Pangea and overtime this continent started
breaking apart and begun drifting apart.
Cenozoic Era (65 Million Years ago - Now)

The Cenozoic Era often described as "Age of Mammals"

or " Age of Flowers" and "Age of Insects".
With large dinosaurs now extinct, smaller mammals that
had survived were able to grow and become dominant.
The climate changed drastically over a relatively short
period of time, becoming much cooler and drier than
during the Mesozoic Era.
An ice age covered most temperate parts of the Earth
with glaciers, causing life to adapt relatively rapidly and
the rate of evolution to increase.
All species of life—including humans—evolved into their
present-day forms over the course of this era, which
hasn't ended and most likely won't until another mass
extinction occurs.
GGEE00LLOOGGIICCAALL
PERIOD
PERIOD
 Periods
Eras are subdivided into units of
time called periods.
Each period lasts tens of
millions of years.
Each period is characterized by
major changes in geological
strata and specific fossils.
 Cambrian Period
541 mya - 485 mya

The Cambrian Period produced the most

intense burst of evolution ever known, often
referred to as the “Cambrian Explosion”.
All existing phyla come into being at this
time.
The first animals with backbones arose
during the Cambrian: these were jawless
fish called "agnathans".
Figure 1. agnathans
 Figure 2. fossil of Figure 3. fossil of Figure 4. Trilobites
archaeocyanthids Acrothele
Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates (mollusks, worms, sponges, echinoderms,
trilobites, arthropods, and brachiopods.).
Due to the abundance of fossils, trilobites are said to be the most abundant and diverse
animal in the Cambrian Period.
Many marine organisms in the Cambrian developed hard exoskeletons, providing
support and protection. This adaptation likely played a role in the preservation of fossils
Rodinia, a continent assembled a billion years before the Cambrian Period, fragmented into
smaller continents shortly before the Cambrian began. This dissolution resulted in the
creation of the Pacific Ocean. By Mid-Cambrian, the two major subcontinents formed from
Rodinia, Laurentia, and Baltica, were wholly separated. At the same time, new collision
events created Gondwana.
Nearly 75% of trilobites and other animals, including the reef-
building Archeocyathids, vanished in a great mid-period
extinction event when shallow seas withdrew. When the shallow
seas returned an even greater diversity of Cambrian animal life
resulted, again filling the oceans with a wide variety of exotic
organisms. After nearly 54 million years, The Cambrian ends with
another major extinction event. Nearly 75% of trilobite families
and 50% of sponge families disappeared at this time.
 Ordovician Period
485 mya - 443 mya
The Great Ordovician Biodiversity Event
(also known as the Ordovician Radiation)
which followed the late Cambrian
extinctions, led to a quadruple of marine
diversity.
The first jawless fish evolved, Arandaspis
and Astraspis.
Plants had made the transition to land,
starting off as small and non-vascular with
mosses and liverwort-type builds.
 Ordovician
Period
485 mya - 443 mya
Throughout the
Ordovician, Gondwana
shifted towards the South
Pole and much of it was
submerged underwater.
From the Lower to Middle Ordovician, the Earth experienced a milder climate.
During Upper Ordovician, massive glaciers formed , causing shallow seas to
drain and sea levels to drop. This likely caused the mass extinctions that
characterize the end of the Ordovician in which 60% of all marine invertebrate
genera and 25% of all families went extinct.
 Silurian Period
443 mya - 419 mya
Gondwana continued a slow
southward drift to high southern
latitudes, while the continents of
Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia
drifted together near the
equator, starting the formation of
a second supercontinent known
as Euramerica also known as
Laurassia.
The climate remained warm and stable throughout most of the Silurian. But
the vast icecaps of the late Ordovician period melted almost to nothing.
Contributing to a substantial rise in the levels of the major seas.
 Silurian Period
443 mya - 419 mya
After the first major global extinction, life
recovered in a few million years, especially
arthropods, cephalopods, and graptolites.
Coral reefs made their first appearance. They
thrived on the borders of the earth's evolving
continents and hosted a wide diversity of
corals, crinoids, and other tiny, community-
dwelling animals.
Euryptus a giant sea scorpion were
Figure 1. Euryptus
prominant during this period and by far the
biggest arthropods of their day.
Fish with moveable jaws appeared both in freshwater and oceans—the
so-called jawed fish-acanthodians, or spiny sharks and placoderms, and
the first bony fish (osteichthyans) evolved.
Simple vascular plants emerged on land with moss forests growing along streambeds
and lakeshores — tiny, fossilized spores from obscure genera like Cooksonia and
Baragwanathia.
Paleontologists have found direct fossil evidence of the first land-dwelling animals.
These terrestrial pioneers were arthropods, such as primitive centipedes and arachnids,
the ancestors of spiders.
 Devonian Period
419 mya - 359 mya
The continents of
Laurentia and Baltica
gradually merged to form
Euramerica, while the giant
Gondwana dominated the
south pole, although it
began significant northerly
drift during the Devonian
Period.

The Euramerican and Gondwana plates began their collision that would lead to
the eventual formation of Pangea.
Figure. Fossilized coelacanth

Devonian Period
419 mya - 359 mya

“The Age of Fishes”

Jawless fish and placoderms reach peak diversity and sharks, lobe-finned, and ray-finned
fishes first appear in the fossil records.
The first sarcopterygians, the lobe-finned fish-are credited with the giant evolutionary
stride that led to the amphibians, making lobefins the ancestors of all four-limbed land
vertebrates,
Figure. Illustration of devonian
forest
Early Devonian saw the spread of terrestrial
vegetation - Plants did not have roots or
leaves and no vascular tissue
Late Devonian saw the evolution of
lycophytes, sphenophytes, ferns, and
progymnosperms. Most plants had true roots
and leaves and grew tall
By the end of Devonian, progymnosperms
like Archaeopteris were the first successful
trees - First seed plants also appeared
The rapid appearance of many plant groups
and growth forms called "Devonian
Figure. Fossilized Archaeopteris
Explosion"
The Devonian Period's close is one of the "big five" mass extinction events.
It had at least two prolonged episodes of species depletion and several
shorter periods.
The Kellwasser Event caused the demise of great coral reefs, jawless fishes,
and trilobites.
The Hangeberg Event killed Placoderms and most of the early ammonites.
Causes of the extinction are debated but may be related to cooling
climate from CO2 depletion caused by the first forests.
Terrestrial plants and animals were largely unaffected by these extinction
events.
 Carboniferous
Period
359 mya- 299 mya
"Carboniferous" is derived
from the latin word carbo
for "coal" and ferrous for
"bearing" or "carrying".

The Carboniferous is the first period in which today's coal beds began to form.
Gondwana became progressively colder as it began another poleward
migration
Africa collided with eastern North America, an event that formed the
Appalachian Mountains.
Age of Amphibians
Carboniferous
The climate of the Carboniferous Period
Period was more humid and tropical 359 mya- 299 mya
than our present-day climate.
The period saw the evolution of many
animal groups, including the first true
bony fishes, sharks, amphibians, and
amniotes.
Amniotes, with their amniotic egg,
allowed reptiles, birds, and mammals
to inhabit previously uninhabited
terrestrial habitats.
 Land snails, dragonflies, and mayflies diversified
during a time when land habitats dried.
Early tetrapods evolved ways to adapt to arid
Figure. Fossilized Hylonomus
environments with the help of the amniotic egg.
The earliest amniote fossil was the lizard-like
Hylonomus
The Carboniferous Period saw the significant
diversification of early tetrapods ( temnospondyls
Figure. temnospondyls
and the anthracosaurs) and the evolution of
diapsids and synapsids.
As the climate grew cooler and drier, the
appearance of amniotes lead to a new evolutionary
path.
Figure. early diapsids
Permian Period Last period of the
299 mya - 252 mya Paleozoic era
All the continents fused to
form Pangea. Much of
Earth’s surface was
covered by a large ocean
called Panthalassa.
The lush swamp forests of
the Carboniferous were
gradually replaced by
conifers, seed ferns, and
other drought-resistant
Figure 7. Permian Period Map plants due to climate.
 Permian Period
299 mya - 252 mya

The two major groups of reptiles-diapsids and synapsids dominated this

period. Diapsids gave rise to the dinosaurs while synapsids gave rise to
mammals.
 Permian Period
299 mya - 252 mya

Amphibians struggled during the Permian period, out-competed by more

adaptable reptiles.
Insects were not diverse yet, with giant cockroaches and dragonflies
being the most common.
Few fossils of marine vertebrates have been found from the Permian
period, but prehistoric sharks and fish were present.
New varieties of seed plants evolved during this time, including ferns,
conifers, and cycads.
 Permian Period
299 mya - 252 mya
The Permian ended with the greatest mass extinction event in Earth's
history, known as the Permian-Triassic extinction or the "Great
Dying."
Estimated to have wiped out more than 90 percent of all marine
species and 70 percent of land animals.
The exact causes of the extinction are still debated but are believed
to involve volcanic activity, climate change, and oceanic anoxia.The
exact causes of the extinction are still debated but are believed to
involve volcanic activity, climate change, and oceanic anoxia.
 Triasic Period
252 mya - 201mya
During the Triassic period, all
continents formed a landmass
called Pangaea. The equator was
hot and dry with violent
monsoons, and the average air
temperature was above 100
degrees Fahrenheit. The north
and south were wetter.

Following the extinction at the end of the Permian Period, life gradually
reestablished itself on land and in the oceans.
Figure. Scleractinians Figure. Eoraptor Figure. Herrerasaurus Figure.Eudimorphodon
Scleractinians (modern corals) replaced earlier forms as dominant reef-
forming organisms.
Triassic marked the rise of the reptiles—notably the archosaurs ("ruling
lizards") and therapsids ("mammal-like reptiles").
The archosaurs evolved into the first true dinosaurs (Eoraptor and
Herrerasaurus).
Some archosaurs became the first pterosaurs (Eudimorphodon) and
ancestral crocodiles.
The Triassic period saw the rise of early marine reptiles after the Permian
Extinction depopulated the world's oceans.
The period was marked by the first plesiosaurs and a flourishing breed of
"fish lizards," the ichthyosaurs.
The Panthalassan Ocean soon found itself restocked with new species of
prehistoric fish, as well as simple animals like corals and cephalopods.
The period also saw an explosion of various land-dwelling plants,
including cycads, ferns, Gingko-like trees, and seed plants.
 Jurassic Period
201 mya - 145 mya
The Pangaean
supercontinent broke up
into Gondwana in the
south and Laurasia in the
north.
“Age of Dinosaurs”.

Dinosaurs: During the Jurassic period, sauropods like Brachiosaurus and

Diplodocus evolved, along with theropod dinosaurs like Allosaurus and
Megalosaurus.
 Jurassic Period
201 mya - 145 mya

Mammals: Early mammals of the Jurassic period

kept a low profile to avoid getting squashed by
bigger dinosaurs.
Feathered dinosaurs like Archaeopteryx and
Epidendrosaurus began to appear. - The first
true prehistoric birds may have evolved by the
end of the Jurassic period, but evidence is still
sparse.
Figure. Archaeopteryx
In the seas, the fishlike ichthyosaurs were at their height, sharing the
oceans with the plesiosaurs. Also prominent in the seas were cephalopods.
Pterosaurs like Pterodactylus, Pteranodon, and Dimorphodon dominated
the Jurassic skies.
Landmasses of the Jurassic period were blanketed with thick vegetation
including ferns, conifers, cycads, club mosses, and horsetails, providing
food for gigantic plant-eating sauropods like Barosaurus and
Apatosaurus.
Flowering plants continued their evolution during the Jurassic period,
culminating in the explosion that helped fuel dinosaur diversity during the
Cretaceous period..
 Cretaceous Period
145 mya - 66 mya

During the early Cretaceous

period, the Pangaean
supercontinent was breaking up.
North and South America,
Europe, Asia and Africa were
taking shape.

India was a giant, floating island in the Tethys Ocean.

It was generally hot and muggy, but with some cooling intervals.
Rising sea levels and endless swamps allowed for dinosaurs and other
prehistoric animals to thrive.
 Cretaceous Period
145 mya - 66 mya
Dinosaur diversity reached its peak during this period, with a wide array of
species ranging from small, feathered theropods to massive herbivorous
sauropods.
This Period saw the emergence of the largest of all known land predators,
such as Tyrannosaurus Rex, and the largest flying animal, Quetzalcoatlus.
Reptiles dominated the land (dinosaurs), the sea (mososaurs and the giant
turtle, archelon) and the air (pterosaurs). Duck-billed dinosaurs are the
commonest ornithischians.
The Cretaceous* saw the first appearance and initial diversification of
flowering plants (Angiosperms).
The Cretaceous Period ends with one of the greatest known extinction events, so
severe it also marks the end of the Mesozoic Era. Dinosaurs, pterosaurs,
mosasaurs, and ammonoids, to name a few, were among the groups lost at this
time. The Cretaceous extinction event is marked by the famous K-T boundary
and asteroid impact on what is now the Yucatan peninsula.
 Palaeogene Period
66.0 mya to 23.5 mya
The beginning of the Cenozoic era.
The continents drifted farther apart,
heading their modern positions.
Absence/extinction of dinosaurs,
pterosaurs, and giant marine reptiles
(except for turtles and crocodilians).
Rodent-sized mammals or even larger,
emerged after the extinction. These
mammals then developed over the next
42million years, growing in size, number,
and diversity.
Palaeogene Period
66.0 mya to 23.5 mya

Significant development in the seas was

the appearance of whales in the mid-late
Paleogene.
Pakicetus (Pakicetidae), a land mammal
took the seas and evolved.
Neogene Period
23.0 mya to 2.58 mya
Began with the continents crashing into
each other.
Animals and plants are approaching
modern life forms in diversity and
appearance.
The continental connections gave animals
that had evolved in isolation access to new
lands.
As climate changed, many of the great
forests that carpeted the continents slowly
gave way to grasslands, a habitat more
suited to the cooler and drier weather.
On land, Hominins adapted to In the oceans, a new type of large
two-footed walking, dropped brown algae, called kelp, latched onto
out of the trees and started to rocks and corals in shallow waters,
carry food and tools in their creating a habitat for otters and
hands. dugongs. Sharks grew and dominated
the seas once again.
Quaternary Period
2.6 mya to Today
Continents were in similar positions at the
start of the Quaternary.
Land bridges formed between continents
during ice ages, enabling animal and
human migration.
During warm spells, ice retreated,
reshaping mountains and creating new
river systems.
Sea levels fall and rise with each period of
freezing and thawing.
Marine Ecosystems: Megafauna on Land: Age of Humans:
Whales and sharks Cold periods saw the Homo erectus
dominated marine rise of massive appeared in Africa at
ecosystems. Food mammals like the beginning of the
chains included otters, mammoths, rhinos, Quaternary.
seals, dugongs, fish, bison, and oxen with Modern humans
squid, crustaceans, shaggy coats. evolved about 190,000
urchins, and About 10,000 years years ago, spreading to
microscopic plankton. ago, warming climate Europe, Asia, Australia,
led to the extinction. and the Americas.
GGEE00LLOOGGIICCAALL
EPOCH
EPOCH
GGEE00LLOOGGIICCAALL EEPPOOCCHH
The fourth biggest unit of time
in the geological timescale is a
geologic epoch. Epochal
periods, which are divisions of a
period, typically span 13 to 15
million years.
 ggeeoollooggiiccaall eeppoocchh
of
of CENOZOIC
CENOZOIC ERA
ERA
(oldest
(oldest to
to youngest)
youngest)

11 44

22 55

33 66

77
First major worldwide division
of rocks and time of the
Paleogene Period, spanning
the interval between 66
million and 56 million years
ago.
The Paleocene is subdivided into three ages
and their corresponding rock stages: the
Danian, Selandian, and Thanetian.
Danian Stage, lowermost and oldest division of
Paleocene rocks, representing all rocks
deposited worldwide during the Danian Age (66
million to 61.6 million years ago) of the
Paleogene Period (66 million to 23 million years
ago).
 Selandian Stage, division of Paleocene rocks,
representing all rocks deposited worldwide
during the Selandian Age (61.6 million to 59.2
million years ago). The Selandian Stage is named
for marine strata in the Seeland region of
Denmark.
 Thanetian stage, the latest age or uppermost
stratigraphic stage of the Paleocene Epoch or
Series. representing all rocks deposited
worldwide during the Thanetian Age (59.2
million to 56 million years ago) of the
Paleogene Period (66 million to 23 million years
ago).
What did Earth look like during the
Paleocene Epoch?
Sea level fell to expose dry land on much of inland North
America, Europe, Africa, and Australia.
By the end of the Paleocene, North America's last large inland
sea was gone.
South America, Antarctica, Australia, India, and Africa were all
separate continents.
What was Earth’s climate like?
The climate during the Paleocene was much warmer
and more uniform than today.
What animals were on Earth during the Paleocene
Epoch?
With their dinosaur competitors gone, many new
mammals evolved.
The first rodents, armadillos, primitive primates, and
ancestors to modern mammalian carnivores
appeared.
What animals were on Earth during the
Paleocene Epoch?
However, none of these Paleocene forms were
any bigger than a small bear.
Many of these early mammals were unsuccessful
competitors, and few exist today.
Although the dinosaurs were gone, reptiles, such
as snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles
persisted.
What plants were on Earth during the
Paleocene Epoch?
New plants quickly evolved, and the first
pines, cacti, and palm trees appeared.
Flowering plants continued to diversify
rapidly.
What did Earth look like during the
Eocene Epoch?
At the beginning of the Eocene, India, which had been moving slowly northward,
collided with Asia, and this force started to push up the Himalayan Mountains.

Australia rifted away from Antarctica and began to move northward. By the end of
the Eocene, the gap between these two continents was large enough that the
Circum-Antarctic Current first started flowing.

This changed ocean currents around the

world and resulted in a global cooling event at
the end of the Eocene.

Sea level was high during much of the Eocene,

which submerged large portions of most
continents.
 What was Earth’s climate like during the
Eocene Epoch?
During the Eocene, temperatures were warmer than during any other time
in the Cenozoic.
There was a lot of rainfall but no seasons, no glaciers, and similar
temperatures throughout most of the
globe.
Palm trees and alligators were able to live
within the Arctic Circle.
By the end of the Eocene, temperatures
had dropped drastically, and seasonality
had returned.
 What animals were on Earth during the
Eocene Epoch?
The increase in diversity of mammals that began in the Paleocene
continued in the Eocene.
The first whales, bats, primitive elephants, and hoofed animals
appeared.
The first giant mammals roamed the Earth.
The first horse-like animals lived in the Eocene, but they were the
size of dogs and had toes instead of hooves.
Eocene primates more closely resembled modern forms.
Birds also continued to diversify with the appearance of penguins,
pelicans, ducks, and gulls.
 What plants were on Earth during the
Eocene Epoch?
The highly successful flowering plants
continued to diversify until they filled most
environments on the land.

Familiar tree species such as birch, cedar,

chestnut, elm, and beech flourished
during the Eocene Epoch
 Third and last major
worldwide division of
the Paleogene period
(65.5 million to 23 million
years ago), spanning
the interval between
33.9 million to 23 million
years ago.
The climate, which had been warm and moist in the
Eocene, became cool, dry, and seasonal.
For the first time in the Cenozoic, Antarctica was
covered extensively with glaciers, which lowered sea
level.
Farther north, temperate forests replaced subtropical
forests.
Near the end of the Oligocene, savannas (grasslands
with scattered trees) appeared.
As forests diminished, some animal species adapted
and became grazers.
Many species could not survive the change in climate
and perished.
Many other new forms evolved that could cope with
the savanna's limited hiding places.
Early forms of monkeys, dogs, cats, rhinoceroses, pigs,
and camels were present.
Horses increased in size, with longer legs and fewer
toes for faster running.
The cooler, drier, more seasonal climate of
the Oligocene was ideal for the evolution of
numerous species of grasses.
the earliest major worldwide division of
the Neogene Period. It lasted from
approximately 23 million years ago to 5
million years ago.
Because of continental plate movement, new
mountain ranges formed during the Miocene in
North America, South America, Europe, and Africa.
There was continued uplift of the Himalayas and
renewed uplift of the Appalachians.
The polar ice cap continued to exist on Antarctica.
Africa and Asia were now connected by land bridges,
as were North America and Siberia.
There were warmer conditions in the first half of the
Miocene.
In the latter half of the Miocene, increased mountain
building, combined with changing ocean currents and
polar ice on Antarctica, led to decreased rainfall,
increased seasonality, and cooler temperatures.
As a result of this climate change, the forests continued
to shrink in size and grasslands spread even more
widely.
The first true prairies appeared and covered much of
the continents.
The two major plant changes were the
major expansion of grasslands and the
appearance of kelp forests in the oceans.
 A geological epoch that lasted from
about 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago. It is
the most recent epoch of the
Neogene period and is characterized
by a relatively warm climate.
 Important for understanding the evolution
of various species, including the ancestors
of modern humans. It was a time of
significant geological and climatic changes,
and it provides valuable insights into the
Earth's history and the development of life
on our planet.
By the beginning of the Pliocene, the continents were in
very similar positions to where we find them today.
The Cascade, Rocky, and Appalachian Mountains were
forming, as well as the Colorado Plateau.
A shift in the Caribbean Plate connected North and
South America at the Isthmus of Panama, and this
provided a land bridge for mammals to migrate across.
The Mediterranean Sea dried out and was a grassland
for several million years.
The Himalayan Mountains continued to rise.
The first half of the Pliocene was warmer than the world
is today, and sea levels were higher.
During the last half of the Pliocene, temperatures
dropped, and there was less rainfall.
Not only did the ice cap on Antarctica grow larger,
there also was an ice cap at the North Pole.
Scientists still aren't sure what caused these climatic
changes that eventually led to the ice ages of the
Pleistocene epoch.
Most of the plant and animal groups would be recognizable to us
today, although the individual species were different.
The emergence of the land bridge between North and South
America in the late Pliocene made it possible for many animals to
migrate into new regions.
Armadillos, ground sloths, opossums, and porcupines moved into
North America, and dogs, cats, bears, and horses moved into South
America.
Many animals became extinct because of the new competition.
The modern horse evolved, and hoofed animals reached their peak
on the grasslands.
Early hominids in Africa evolved into several distinctly different
species with only one of them surviving to the present day as
modern human.
Grasslands and savannas expanded
significantly due to the cooler, drier climate.

The vegetation species were very similar to

those of today.
The geological epoch that lasted from 2.58
million to 11,700 years ago, spanning the
Earth's most recent period of repeated
glaciations.
The position of the continents was essentially
the same as it is today.
However, the outline of the continents
changed as a result of the ice ages.
During a glacial period, sea level fell because
water was trapped in the ice.
During an interglacial period, sea level rose as
the ice melted and the water flowed into the
oceans.
This was a time of global cooling and warming with ice ages
and interglacial periods occurring about every 100,000
years.
We are in the beginning of an interglacial period right now
(as of 2020).
During the glacial periods, the northern quarter of the globe
was covered with ice.
At its maximum, the ice was 13,000 feet thick, and sea level
dropped about 430 feet.
During the interglacial periods, much of the northern ice
melted, and the glaciers retreated northward.
The ice on Antarctica, however, which melted much less
during interglacial periods, gradually increased in size.
Many plants and animals survived to live on the
planet today, but many others did not.
There was a significant number of large animals (i.e.,
mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and
giant ground sloths), but few of them survived.
Their extinction was probably due to stresses from
the fluctuating climate and being hunted by humans.
By the end of the Pleistocene, modern humans had
spread throughout most of the world except
Antarctica.
During interglacial periods, forests
were dominant.
When the climate cooled, grasslands
expanded, and tundra dominated.
The Holocene Epoch is the most recent
interval of the Earth’s geologic history,
dating from about 11,700 years ago to the
present.
It is the younger of the two epochs that
constitute the Quaternary Period, and
follows the last glacial stage of the
Pleistocene Epoch.
 The Holocene Epoch is the current period of
geologic time. Another term that is sometimes
used is the Anthropocene Epoch, because its
primary characteristic is the global changes
caused by human activity.
This term can be misleading, though; modern
humans were already well established long
before the epoch began.
The Holocene Epoch began 12,000 to 11,500
years ago at the close of the Paleolithic Ice
Age and continues through today.
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
EARLY TO PRESENT DAY