Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-4

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Rajanukunte, Bangalore-560064
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: BASIC ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

SUBJECT CODE--[21ELN14/24]

MODULE - 4
Syllabus:

Analog and Digital Communication – Modern communication system scheme, Information source,
and input transducer, Transmitter, Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Soft wired, Noise, Receiver,
Multiplexing, Types of communication systems.

Types of modulation (only concepts) – AM, FM, Phase Modulation, Pulse Modulation, PAM, PWM,

PPM, PCM.

Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky) Concepts of Sampling theorem, Nyquist
rate, Digital Modulation Schemes– ASK, FSK, PSK

Radio signal transmission Multiple access techniques, Multipath and fading, Error Management

Antenna, Types of antennas (only definition and antenna model, exclude radiation patterns).

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Introduction
Communication?
 Transfer of information from one point to other (or) Exchange of Information between two
points.
 Electronic Communication: Sending data orInformation using electronic devices. This allows
rapid transfer of goods, money and ideas.
Need for Communication
 Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media
due thetechnology available for quick transmission
 Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around the
globe requires just a second.
 Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
 Exchange of feedback: Instant exchange of feedback
 24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime

Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The modulating
signal isusually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz).
Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency
signal which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the
message signal. The range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

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4.1 MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM SCHEME:

 Communication engineering deals with the techniques of transmitting information.

 Communication engineering means electrical communication, in which information is
transmitted through electrical signals.
 Electrical communication is a process by which the information message is transmitted from one
point to another, from one person to another, or from one place to another in the form of electrical
signals, through some communication link.
 Basic communication system provides a link between the information source and its destination.
The process of electrical communication involves sending, receiving, and processing information
in electrical form.
 The information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages of the communication
system prior it reaches its destination.
 Figure 4.1 shows a block schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication
system.

Fig 4.1 Schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication system.
The main constituents of basic communication system are:
(i) Information source and input transducer
(ii) Transmitter
(iii) Channel or medium
(iv) Noise
(v) Receiver
(vi) Output transducer and final destination.
(i) Information source:
 A communication system transmits information from an information source to a destination and
hence the first stage of a communication system is the information source.
 Ex: A sentence or paragraph spoken by a person is a message that contains some information.

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The person, in this case, acts as information source. Few other familiar examples of messages
are voice, live scenes, music, written text, and e-mail.
 A communication system transmits information in the form of electrical signal or signals.
(i) Input transducer:
 A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical energy into its corresponding electrical
energy called signal and vice versa, e.g., during a telephone conversation, the words spoken by
a person are in the form of sound energy.
 An example of a transducer is a microphone. Microphone converts sound signals into the
corresponding electrical signals.
 Similarly, a television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals into its corresponding
pictures. Some other examples of transducers are movie cameras, Video Cassette, Recorder
(VCR) heads, tape recorder heads, and loudspeakers.
 The information produced by the information source is applied to the next stage, termed the
information or input /transducer. This in turn, produces an electrical signal corresponding to the
information as output. This electrical signal is called the baseband signal. It is also called a
message signal s(t).
 There are two types of signals. (a) analog signal, and (b) digital signal.
(a) Analog Signal
 An analog signal is a function of time, and has a continuous range of values. However, there is
a definite function value of the analog signal at each point of time.
 A familiar example of analog signal or analog wave form is a pure sine wave form. A practical
example of an analog signal is a voice signal. When a voice signal is converted to electrical for
by a microphone, one gets a corresponding electrical analog signal.

Fig 4.2: Analog signals (a) Pure sine wave (b) Typical speech signal

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(b) Digital signal

 A digital signal does not have continuous function values on a time scale. It is discrete in nature,
i.e., it has some values at discrete timings.
 A familiar example of a digital signal is the sound signal produced by drumbeats.

Fig 4.3: Digital signal

 Digital signals in their true sense correspond to a binary digital signal, where the discrete
amplitude of the signal is coded into binary digits represented by ‘0’ and ‘1’.
 The analog signal, which is continuous in time, is converted to discrete time, using a procedure
calling sampling. The continuous amplitude of the analog signal is converted to discrete
amplitude using a process called quantization. Sampling and quantization are together termed as
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and the circuitry that performs this operation is called an
analog to-digital converter.
(ii) Transmitter:
The transmitter section processes the signal prior transmission. There are two following options
for processing signals prior transmission:
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequency spectrum.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum.
• The baseband signal is converted into a corresponding series of sine waves of two different
frequencies prior to transmission. Figure 4.4 illustrates this processing.
• The carrier communication system is based on the principle of translating a low frequency
baseband signal to higher frequency spectrum. This process is termed as modulation.
• If the baseband signal is a digital signal, the carrier communication system is called a digital
communication system. The digital modulation methods are employed for this.
• If the baseband signal is an analog signal, the carrier communication system is called as an
analog communication system and for processing the analog modulation techniques are used.

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Fig: 4.4 The processing of a baseband signal

Fig. 4.5 Block diagram representing schematic of an analog transmitter section

 Figure 4.5 shows the baseband signal, s(t) applied to the modulated stage. This stage translates
the baseband signal from its low frequency spectrum to high frequency spectrum. This stage also
receives another input called the carrier signal, c(t), which is generated by a high frequency
carrier oscillator.
 Modulation takes place at this stage with the baseband and the carrier signals as two inputs after
modulation, the baseband signal is translated to a high frequency spectrum and the carrier signal
is said to be modulated by the baseband signal.
 The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). The
voltage of the modulated signal is then amplified to drive the last stage of the transmitter, called
the power amplifier stage (Fig. 4.5).

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 This stage amplifies the power of the modulated signal and thus it carries enough power to reach
the receiver stage of the communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission
medium or channel.
 Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic (em) waves, also referred as radio waves,
in a radio communication system.
 The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a few ten kilo Hertz (Hz) to several
thousand Mega Hertz (MHz). This wide range of frequencies is referred as the radio frequency
(RF) spectrum.
Radio frequency Wavelength Class Applications
range (meters)
10-30 KHz 3x104 - 104 Very Low Frequency Point to point
communication (long
(VLF)
distance).
30-300 KHz 104 – 103 Low Frequency (LF) Point to point
communication (long
distance) and
navigation Radio
broadcasting.
300-3000 KHz 103 – 102 Medium Frequency Radio broadcasting.
(MF)
3-30 MHz 102 – 102 High Frequency (HF) Overseas radio
broadcasting, Point
to point radio
telegraphy and
telephony.
30-300MHz 102 – 10 Very High Frequency FM broadcast ,
Television
(VHF)
&RADAR.
300-3000MHz 1.0 - 0.1 Ultra High Television and
navigation.
Frequency (UHF)
3000-30000 MHz 0.1 - 0.01 Super High Radar navigation and
radio relays.
Frequency (SHF)

(iii) Channel or Medium:

 After the required processing, the transmitter section passes the signal to the transmission
medium. The signal propagates through the transmission medium and is received at the other
side by the receiver section. The transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver
is called a channel.
 Channel is a very important part of a communication system as its characteristics add many
constraints to the design of the communication system, e.g., most of the noise is added to the
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signal during its transmission through the channel.

 Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two
groups:
Hardware Channels:
These channels are manmade structure which can be used as transmission medium. There are
following three possible implementations of the hardware channels.
1. Transmission lines
2. Waveguides
3. Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
• The examples of transmission lines are Twisted-pair cables used in landline telephony and
coaxial cables used for cable TV transmission. However, transmission lines are not suitable for
ultra-high frequency (UHF) transmission.
• To transmit signals at UHF range, Waveguides are employed as medium. Waveguides are
hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures. The signals enter the waveguide, are reflected
at the metallic walls, and propagate towards the other end of the waveguide.
• Optical fiber cables are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the form of extremely thin
circular pipes. e.g., landline telephony and cable TV network.
Software Channels:
There are certain natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.
Such transmission media are called software channels.
• The possible natural resources that can be used as software channels are: air or open space and
sea water.
• The most widely used software channel is air or open space. The signals are transmitted in the
form of electromagnetic (em) waves, also called radio waves.
• Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are called radio
communication systems, e.g., radio broad cast, television transmission, satellite communication,
and cellular mobile communication.
(iv) Noise:
 In electronics and communication engineering, noise is defined as unwanted electrical energy
of random and unpredictable nature present in the system due to any cause.
 Obviously, noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any useful information.
Thus, noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and have to be minimized.
SNR and Noise Figure (F):
 One can define the SNR as the ratio of the signal power to the noise power at a point in the

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circuit. Now, if Ps, is signal power and Pn, is noise power, then SNR expressed as S/N, is given
as
𝑆 𝑃𝑠
( )= ( )
𝑁 𝑃𝑛
If Ps = Vs2R and Pn = Vn2R, then
𝑆 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅
= =
𝑁 𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛2 𝑅
where Vs, is signal voltage and Vn, is noise voltage.
 In addition, it is assumed that both the signal and noise powers are dissipated in the same resistor
R. Therefore, SNR can be expressed in terms of decibels (dB) as
𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( 2 )
𝑁 𝑉𝑛
𝑆 𝑉𝑠
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝑁 𝑉𝑛
 For example, if, at a particular point in a circuit, the signal and noise voltages are given as 3.5
mV and 0.75 mV, respectively, SNR in dB is calculated as:
𝑆 3.5
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝑁 0.75
𝑆
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 (4.66)
𝑁
𝑆
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 13.38 𝑑𝐵
𝑁
Clearly, the SNR of the circuit at the point is 13.38 dB.
 The Noise figure (F) is the measure of the noise introduced by the circuit. It is defined as the ratio
of the signal-to-noise power at the input of the circuit and the signal-to-noise power at the output
of the circuit. Noise figure (r) can be expressed as
𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐹= 𝑁
𝑆
𝑁 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
Receiver:
 The task of the receiver is to provide the original information to the user. This information is
altered due to the processing at the transmitter side.
 The signal received by the receiver, thus does not contain information in its original form. The
receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs some processing on it to the original
baseband signal.
 The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the received signal, and then

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recover the original baseband signal by performing some processing on it.

 The receiver performs an operation known as demodulation, which brings the baseband signal
from the higher frequency spectrum to its original low-frequency spectrum. The demodulation
process removes the high frequency carrier from the received signal and retrieves the original
baseband.

Fig: 4.6 Detailed block diagram of a typical receive section

 From Fig. 4.6 it is evident that the received signal, r(t), is first amplified by the front-end voltage
amplifier. This is done to strengthen the received signal, which is weak and to facilitate easy
processing. Next, this signal is given to the demodulator, which in turn, demodulates the received
signal to recover the original baseband signal. After recovering the original baseband signal, its
voltage and power is amplified prior it to final destination block.
4.2 MULTIPLEXING
 This is a technique that is most widely used in nearly all types of communication systems, radio
and line communication systems.
 Basically, multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to transmit through a
single channel.
 The use of multiplexing also makes the communication system economical because more than
one signal can be transmitted through a single channel.
 Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through modulation.
 To consider multiplexing, let us consider the following example. If many people speak loudly
and simultaneously, then it becomes nearly impossible to understand their conversion because
the overall result is noise. This noise is the result of mixing of all the speeches.
 The human ear is not capable of separating these intermingled speeches and therefore no
intelligent words are communicated to brain.
 The same situation is now applied to the transmission of audio signals. These audio signals may

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come from, say ten different persons. While the speech frequency of different persons will be
different, all the ten signals will lie in the same audio range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Fig 4.7: Multiplexer

4.3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1. Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure:
Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another point.
There is a physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver inline
communication systems.
Ex: Land line telephony, Cable TV
Radio communication systems: that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are
called radio communication systems.
Ex: Radio broadcast, television transmission, satellite communication, and cellular mobile
communication.
2. Communication systems based on Signal specifications:
A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal:
i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals. Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.
ii) ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through
digital signals. Ex: Audio, HDTV
B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal:
i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc

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ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high
frequency carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Based on their physical infrastructure Based on their signal specifications

Line/Radio Simplex/Duplex Nature of Nature of

Communication Communication baseband signal Transmitted signal

Analog Digital Baseband Carrier

communication communication communication communication
system system system system

Fig 4.8: Types of Communication Systems

4.4 MODULATION
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
TYPES OF MODULATION:
 Continuous-wave Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
 Pulse modulation
 PAM
 PWM
 PPM
 PCM
1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
 AM is defined as the modulation technique in which the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the analog modulating signal
to be transmitted while the frequency and the phase of the carrier signal remain unchanged.
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 Figure 4.8 shows the high frequency carrier signal, modulating signal and the modulated signal.

Fig: 4.9 Waveforms of Amplitude modulation

 It can be clearly seen from the figure 4.8 that the modulating signal seems to be superimposed
on the carrier signal. The amplitude variations in the peak values of the carrier signal exactly
replicate the modulating signal at different points in time which is known as an envelope.
2. Frequency Modulation:
 A modulating signal may vary the frequency of the carrier keeping the amplitude and phase
constant. This type of modulation is called Frequency modulation. Broadly speaking, the
frequency modulation is the process of changing the frequency of the carrier voltage in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage.
 The original frequency of the carrier signal is called Centre or resting frequency and denoted
by fc. The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or shifts above or below
the resting frequency is termed as frequency deviation (Δf). This means Δf ∝ m(t).
 The total variation is frequency of F.M. wave from the lowest to the highest is termed as carrier
saving (CS), i.e., CS = 2 x frequency deviation in Centre frequency or CS=2 Δf.
 Modulation index in F.M. is the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency,

i.e. µ𝑓= 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

=
Δ𝑓
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑚

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Fig: 4.10 Waveforms of Frequency modulation

3. Phase modulation:
 PM is another form of angle modulation. Phase modulation is the process in which the
instantaneous phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
 In this type of modulation, the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains unaltered
after pulse modulation.

Fig: 4.11 Waveforms of Phase modulation

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Pulse modulation:
 It may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech or data. It is system in
which continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation may be
subdivided into two categories, analog and digital.
 Pulse-amplitude and pulse-time modulation are both analog, while the pulse code and delta
modulation system are both digital.
4.1 Phase-amplitude modulation (PAM):
 PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. PAM is a pulse modulation system in which
the signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made proportional to the
amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling. The pulses are then sent by either wire or
cable, or else are used to modulate a carrier.
 The ability to use constant-amplitude pulses is a major advantage of pulse modulation, and
since PAM does not use constant- amplitude pulses, it is infrequently used. When it is used,
the pulses frequency- modulate the carrier.
4.2 Pulse width or pulse-duration modulation (PWM or PDM):
 In this system, the starting time and amplitude of each pulse are constant but the width or
duration of each pulse is made proportional to the instantaneous value of analog signal.
 PDM has the disadvantage, when compared with pulse-position modulation (PPM), that its
pulses are of varying width and therefore of varying power content. This means that the
transmitter must be powerful enough to handle the maximum- width pulses, although the
average power transmitted is perhaps only half of the peak power. PWM still works if
synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
4.3 Pulse position-modulation (PPM):
In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant, while the position of
each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by instantaneous
sampled value of the modulating wave. As compared to PWM, PPM has the advantage of
requiring constant transmitter power output, but the disadvantage of depending on
transmitter receiver synchronization.

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Fig 4.12: Waveforms of PAM, PWM & PPM

4.4 Pulse-code modulation (PCM):
PCM is a modulation technique in which analog signal gets converted into digital form in order
to have signal transmission through a digital network.

Fig 4.13: Pulse code modulation

Sampling: Converting an analog signal to a discrete time signal by multiplying the analog signal
with periodic impulse train.
Quantization: ADC unit rounded off the samples to the nearest value of a finite set of allowable
values.
Encoding: The rounded off values are binary coded.

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Advantages:

1. Immune to channel induced noise

2. Secured data transmission
3. Ensures uniform transmission quality

Disadvantages:
Requires large transmission bandwidth and more complex than other systems.
4.5 Sampling theorem and Nyquist Rate
 There are two types of signals, continuous-time and discrete-time signals. The processing of
discrete-time signals is more flexible and is also preferable than the continuous-time signals.
The sampling theorem governs the conversion of continuous-time signal into discrete- time
signal. The concept of sampling provides a widely used method for using discrete-time system
technology to implement continuous-time systems and process the continuous-time signals.
 Sampling theorem: A continuous-time signal may be completely represented in its samples and
recovered back if the sampling frequency is 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚 . Here, fs is the sampling frequency and fm
is the maximum frequency present in the signal.

Fig 4.14: Sampling Waveform

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Nyquist Rate:
 When the sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm samples per second, then it is called Nyquist
rate. Nyquist rate is the minimum sampling rate.
 A low pass filter is used to recover the original signal from its samples.
 The process of reconstructing the continuous-time signal from its samples is known as
interpolation.
 When the sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist rate, aliasing problem is said to occur.
Aliasing is the phenomenon in which a high frequency component in the frequency spectrum of
the signal takes the identity of a lower frequency component in the spectrum of the sampled
signal.
To avoid aliasing:
• Pre-alias filter must be used to limit the band of frequencies of the signal to f m Hz.
• Sampling frequency must be selected such that 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚 .

4.6 Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky):

 In space communication electromagnetic waves of different frequencies are used to carry
information through the physical space acting as the transmission medium. Electromagnetic
waves with frequencies extending from about 10 kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves.
 Depending primarily on the frequency a radio wave travels from the transmitting to the receiving
antenna in several ways. On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be broadly
classified as:
(a) ground or surface wave. (b) space or tropospheric wave. (c) sky way.
(a). Ground wave propagation:
 In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its curved
surface from the transmitter to the receiver.
 As the waves moves over the ground, they are strongly influenced by the electrical properties
of the ground. As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground; ground wave
propagation is useful only at low frequencies.
 Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distances of about 1500
km from the transmitter.
 AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place primarily
by the ground wave. Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the atmospheric
conditions be.

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Fig 4.15: Ground wave propagation

(b). Space or tropospheric wave propagation:
 When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a straight line directly reaches
the receiving antenna, it is termed as space or tropospheric wave.
 In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the earth's troposphere within
about 15 km over the surface of the earth.
 The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight MGVE form the transmitting to the receiving antenna.
(b) the ground-reflected urine traversing forms the transmitting antenna to ground and reflected
to the receiving antenna.
 Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted through this mode.

Fig 4.16: Space wave propagation

(c). Sky wave propagation:
 Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after
reflection from the ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere).
 Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the globe via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
 Ionosphere - The ionized region extending about 80 KM above the earth’s surface.
 In ionosphere radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate electrons and
ions from molecules.
 The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions.

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Fig 4.17: Mode of Propagation

Advantages of sky wave propagation
1. It supports large distance propagation.
2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there exist
variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applications
Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.
4.7 Digital Modulation Schemes:
 In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to
transmit digital signals on a bandpass channel, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the
sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming digital data.
 Since, the digital data is in discrete steps, the modulation of the bandpass sinusoidal carrier is
also done in discrete steps. Due to this reason, this type of modulation is known as digital
modulation.
 Digital modulation schemes as classified as under:
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

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 Because of constant amplitude of FSK or PSK, the effect of non-linearity’s, noise interference
is minimum on signal detection. However, these effects are more pronounced on ASK.
Therefore, FSK and PSK are preferred over ASK.
 Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent detection.
In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier
at the transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating the received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. The coherent detection is also called synchronous detection.
 ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal
carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator.
 The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of coherent detector.

Fig 4.18: ASK, FSK, & PSK Waveforms.

4.8 Radio Signal Transmission
 Fig 4.19 shows the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter. In the figure, the
transmitter usually processes the information in two stages. In the first stage, a modulator accepts
the incoming bits, and computes symbols that represent the amplitude and phase of the outgoing
wave. It then passes these to the analogue transmitter, which generates the radio wave itself.
 The modulation scheme used in Fig. 4.19 is known as quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK).
 A QPSK modulator takes the incoming bits two at a time and transmits them using a radio wave
that can have four different states. These have phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°.

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Fig 4.19: Architecture of a wireless communication transmitter

4.20: Quadrature phase shift keying (a) Example QPSK waveform (b) QPSK constellation diagram
 Fig. 4.20 (a), which correspond to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively. We can
represent the four states of QPSK using the constellation diagram shown in Fig. 4.20 (b).
 In this diagram, the distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the
transmitted wave, while the angle (measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis) represents its phase.
Usually, it is more convenient to represent each symbol using two other numbers, which are
known as the in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) components. These are computed as follows:
I = a cos ɸ
Q = a sin ɸ
where a is the amplitude of the transmitted wave and ɸ is its phase.
 Mathematicians will recognize the in-phase and quadrature components as the real and imaginary
parts of a complex number.

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LTE Modulation scheme

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile
devices(marketed as 4G). LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below.
i) Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK
ii) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
iii) 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
iv) 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM

(i) BPSK sends one bit at a time using two states (0 and 1) representing phases of 0 o and 180o or
signalamplitudes of +1 and -1.
(ii) QPSK sends two bits at a time using 4 states (00, 01, 10 and 11)to represent amplitude and
phaseby 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o
(iii) 16 - QAM sends four bits at a time using 16 states to represent amplitude and phase. 16
quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) sends bits four at a time, using 16 states that
have different amplitudes and phases.
(iv) Similarly, 64-QAM sends bits six at a time using 64 different states, so it has a data rate six
times greater than that of BPSK.

Fig 4.21: Modulation schemes used by LTE

4.9 Multiple Access Techniques:
 The techniques described so far work well for one-to-one communications. In a cellular network,
however, a base station has to transmit to many different mobiles at once. It does this by sharing
the resources of the air interface, in a technique known as multiple access.
 Mobile communication systems use a new different multiple access technique, two of which are
shown in Fig. 4.22 frequency division multiple access (FDMA) was used by the first-

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generation analogue systems. In this technique, each mobile receives information on its own
carrier frequency, which it distinguishes from the others by the use of analogue filters.
 In time division multiple access (TDMA), mobiles receive information on the same carrier
frequency but at different times.
 GSM uses a mix of frequency and time division multiple access, in which every cell has several
carrier frequencies that are each shared amongst eight different mobiles.
 LTE uses another mixed technique known as orthogonal frequency division multiple access
(OFDMA).

Fig 4.22: Example multiple access techniques

 Third generation communication systems used a different technique altogether, known as code
division multiple access (CDMA) - In this technique, mobiles receive on the same carrier
frequency and at the same time, but the signals are labelled by the use of codes, which allow a
mobile to separate its own signal from those of the others.
 Multiple access is actually a generalization of a simpler technique known as multiplexing.
FDD and TDD Modes
 A mobile communication system can operate in the transmission modes as shown in Fig. 4.23.
 Duplexing: Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving
information from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where
talking and listening is enabled at a time.
Down link: Base Station to mobile Uplink: Mobile to Base Station
 Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the
same time, but using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for
every user. A sufficient guard band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so
they do not interfere with one another. FDD is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses
frequency for uplink and down link.

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Advantages: In FDD mode, the bandwidths of the uplink and downlink are fixed and are usually
the same. This makes it suitable for voice communications, in which the uplink and downlink
data rates are very similar.
 Time Division Duplexing (TDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same
carrier frequency but at different times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by
a guard band. A guard period ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more
suitable for fixed wireless systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.
Advantages: In TDD mode, the system can adjust how much time is allocated to the uplink and
downlink. This makes it suitable for applications such as web browsing.
Disadvantages: TDD mode can be badly affected by interference if, for example, one base
station is transmitting while a nearby base station is receiving.
 To avoid this, nearby base stations must be carefully time synchronized and must use the
same allocations for the uplink and downlink, so that they all transmit and receive at the same
time.
 This makes TDD suitable for networks that are made from isolated hotspots, because each
hotspot can have a different timing and resource allocation. In contrast, FDD is often preferred
for wide-area networks that have no isolated regions.

Fig 4.23: Operation of FDD and TDD modes

4.10 MULTIPATH AND FADING
 Propagation loss and noise are not the only problem. As a result of reflections, rays can take
several different paths from the transmitter to the receiver. This phenomenon is known as
multipath.

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 At the receiver, the incoming rays can add together in different ways, which are shown in Fig.
4.24. If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide then they reinforce each other, a situation known
as constructive interference.
 If, however, the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, then the result is
destructive interference, in which the rays cancel.
 Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a situation
known as fading. The resulting increase in the error rate makes fading a serious problem for any
mobile communication system.

Fig 4.24: Generation of constructive interference, destructive interference and fading in a

multipath environment

Fig 4.25: Fading as a function of (a) time and (b) frequency

 If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry changes, so the interference
pattern changes between constructive and destructive.

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 Fading is therefore a function of time, as shown in Fig. 4.25 (a). The amplitude and phase of the
received signal vary over a timescale called the coherence time, Tc which can be estimated as
follows:
1
𝑇𝑐 ≈ 𝑓
𝐷

Here 𝑓𝐷 is the mobile's Doppler frequency:

𝑣
𝑓𝐷 = 𝑐 𝑓𝑐

where fc is the carrier frequency, v is the speed of the mobile and c is the speed of light (3 x 10 8
m/s).
 For example, a pedestrian might walk with a speed of l ms -1 (3.6 km hr -1). At a carrier frequency
of 1500 MHz, the resulting Doppler shift is 5 Hz, giving a coherence time of about 200
milliseconds. Faster mobiles move through the interference pattern more quickly, so their
coherence time is correspondingly less.
 If the carrier frequency changes, then the wavelength of the radio signal changes. This also makes
the interference pattern change between constructive and destructive, so fading is a function of
frequency as well 4.25 (b).
4.11 Error Management
Noise and interference lead to errors in a wireless communication receiver. These are bad enough
during voice calls, but are even more damaging to important information such as web pages and
emails. Fortunately, there are several ways to solve the problem. The most important technique is
forward error correction.

 Forward error correction – It is technique used for controlling errors in data transmission
over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The transmitted information is represented
using a codeword that is typically two or three times as long. The extra bits supply additional,
redundant data that allow the receiver to recover the original information sequence.
 For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 (3-bits) using the
codeword 110010111 (9-bits). After an error in the second bit, the receiver might recover the
codeword 100010111. If the coding scheme has been well designed, then the receiver can
conclude that this is not a valid codeword, and that the most likely transmitted codeword was
110010111.

 The coding rate –is the number of information bits divided by the number of transmitted bits
(1/3 in the example above).
 Forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. Despite this, a wireless
transmitter can still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage process shown in the below fig.
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Fig 4.26: Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using forward error correction and rate
Matching
Automatic Repeat Request:
 Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is illustrated
in Fig 4.27.
 Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits that
are known as a cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
 It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the usual
way. Receiver separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected
CRC bits.
 If the observed and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the information
has been received correctly and sends positive acknowledge back to the transmitter.
 If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error has occurred and sends negative
acknowledge back to the transmitter to request retransmission. Positive and negative
acknowledgements are often abbreviated to ACK and NACK respectively.

 A wireless communication system often combines these two error management techniques.
Such a system corrects most of the bit errors by the use of forward error correction and then
uses automatic repeat requests to handle the remaining errors that leak through.

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Fig 4.27: Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using automatic repeat request

Fig 4.28: Operation of a selective re-transmission ARQ scheme

4.12 Antenna:
Antenna is a device used for converting electromagnetic radiation in space into electrical currents
in conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used for receiving or for
transmitting, respectively. Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated
waves. Antennas receive electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a receiver or they transmit
electromagnetic waves which have been produced by a transmitter.
Some of the features of the antenna are as follows.
 The radiation pattern of the antenna.
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 The intensity of radiation.

 Benefit and direction.
 Effective aperture.
 Power gain and radiation efficiency.
 Effective length.
 Polarization of the antenna.
 Bandwidth.
Types of Antenna
• Omni-directional Antennas
• Dipole Antennas
• Collinear omni Antennas
• Directional Antennas
• Patch Antennas
• Patch Array Antennas
• Yagi Antennas
1. Omnidirectional Antenna
An omnidirectional antenna is an antenna that has a non-directional pattern (circular pattern) in a
given plane with a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane. Examples of omnidirectional
antennas are dipoles and collinear antennas.
2. Dipole Antennas
Dipole Antenna has two metallic rods (lie along the same axis) through which current and
frequency flow. The current flow creates an electromagnetic wave. Energy radiates outward the
horizon. Most commonly referred as half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole shown in fig 4.30.
Applications: Radio, TV receivers.
3. Collinear Omni Antennas:
A collinear antenna consists of an array of dipole elements. These dipoles are parallel and
collinear with each other. This type of antenna has an enhanced gain. Higher gain implies same
power radiated in a more focused way. Applications: Base station antenna for dispatcher for
police, fire, ambulance, and taxi services.
Directional Antennas
 A directional antenna is one that radiates its energy more effectively in one (or some) direction
than others. Typically, these antennas have one main lobe and several minor lobes. Examples
of directional antennas are patches and dishes.
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 Directional antennas are used for coverage as well as point-to-point links. They can be patch
antennas, dishes, horns or a whole host of other varieties. They all accomplish the same goal:
radiating their energy out in a particular direction.
4. Patch Antennas
 A patch antenna, in its simplest form, is just a single rectangular (or circular) conductive plate
that is spaced above a ground plane.
 Patch antennas are attractive due to their low profile and ease of fabrication. The radiation
pattern of a single patch is characterized by a single main lobe of moderate beamwidth.
 Frequently, the beamwidths in the azimuth and elevation planes are similar, resulting in a fairly
circular beam, although this is by no means universal.
 The beamwidths can be manipulated to produce an antenna with higher or lower gain,
depending on the requirements. An antenna built with a single patch will have a maximum gain
of about 9 dBi or a bit less.
 The patch antenna in Fig. 4.29 shows how simple these antennas can be. This is a simple
rectangular patch built over a rectangular ground plane.

Fig 4.29: Patch antenna Fig 4.30: Dipole antenna

5. Patch Array Antennas:

It is an arrangement of multiple patch antennas commonly driven by the same source. It consists
of patches arranged in the order of rows and columns. Mainly this arrangement is made to achieve
higher gain.

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Fig 4.31: 4x4 patch array antenna Fig 4.32: Yagi-Antenna model
6. Yagi Antennas

 A Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates signals in one main direction. It consists of
a long transmission line with a single driven element consisting of two rods connected on either
side of the transmission line.

 The Yagi shown here in Fig. 4.32 is built with one reflector (the bar behind the driven antenna)
and 14 directors (the bars in front of the driven antenna).

 Many times, these antennas are designed so that they can be rotated for either horizontal or vertical
polarization, so having the same 3-dB beamwidth in each plane is a nice feature in those instances.

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Review Questions

1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

2. Define the following terms: i) Carrier communication system ii) Baseband
communication systemwith neat and suitable waveforms.
3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.
4. What is modulation? Explain types of analog modulation with the help of waveforms.
5. Explain the following with the help of waveforms
a) PAM b) PWM c) PPM d) PCM
6. Define sampling theorem and explain when aliasing can happen. Also mention the
different ways inwhich aliasing can be avoided.
7. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.
8. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation
scheme QPSKwith waveforms and constellation diagrams.
9. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
10. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.
11. Briefly explain the concept of radio propagation methods.
12. Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with applications in
communicationssystems.
13. Define the following terms: i) Multipath, ii) Constructive and destructive interference,
iii) Coherencetime, iv) coherence bandwidth, v) Delay spread
14. Explain different types of radio wave propagation with a neat diagram.
15. Write short notes on: Forward Error Correction, Automatic Repeat Request.
16. Define an antenna and discuss different types of antennas.

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