1.0 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 1.

3 The Difference Between Hardware and Software

1.1 What is Hardware? Computer hardware is the physical components that make up the
computer system. Hardware is useless without software to run on it.
Hardware is the physical parts of the computer system – the parts that
you can touch and see. Software is instructions that tell computer hardware what to do.
Software is useless unless there is hardware to run it on.
A motherboard, a CPU, a keyboard and a monitor are all items of
hardware. For a computer system to be useful it has to consist of both hardware
and software.

1.4 Main Computer Components

(a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer. It is the device that

carries out software instructions.

1.2 What is Software?

Software is a collection of instructions that can be ‘run’ on a

computer. These instructions tell the computer what to do.
The Pentium processor made by Intel is an example of a
Software is not a physical thing (but it can of course be stored on a CPU.
physical medium such as a CD-ROM), it is just a bunch of codes.
CPUs usually plug into a large socket on the main circuit
An operating system such as Windows XP or Mac OS X, applications board (the motherboard) of a computer. They get very hot
such as Microsoft Word, and the instructions that control a robot are when they are operating so usually have a large fan attached
all examples of software.
to their top to keep them cool.

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 (i) Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the part of the computer
that temporarily stores the instructions that the computer is
running, and the data it is processing.

RAM is a volatile storage device. This means that if the

computer’s power is turned off the contents of RAM
disappear and are lost.

RAM, like the CPU, also plugs in to sockets on the

motherboard.

When a computer is in use, its RAM will contain…

1. The operating system software

2. The application software currently being used
3. Any data that is being processed

The speed of a CPU is measured in Hertz (Hz).

The speed generally corresponds to the number of actions the CPU

can perform every second.

 1 Megahertz (MHz) is 1,000,000 (1 million) Hertz

 1 Gigahertz (GHz) is 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Hertz

A typical, modern, fast CPU runs at around 2.8GHz. That means it

can perform almost 3 billion actions every second!

(b) Main Memory The storage capacity of memory is measured in Bytes.

Any data or instructions that are to be processed by the Usually RAM can hold millions of bytes of data, so you will see
CPU must be placed into main memory (sometimes +capacities measured in:
known as primary storage).

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  Megabytes (MB) or 1,000,000 (1 million) Bytes 'Peripheral' literally means 'around the edge'.
 Gigabytes (GB) or 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Bytes
In other words these devices are not part of the central core of the
So, if a computer has 2GB of RAM, it can hold 2 billion bytes of data computer.
and instructions at any time.
1.5.1What Are Input Devices?
Devices that pass data into the computer are known as input devices.
(ii) Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is used in most computers to hold a
small, special piece of software: the 'boot up' program.

This software runs when the computer is switched on or 'boots up'.

The software checks the computer’s hardware and then loads the
operating system. A keyboard, a mouse and a webcam are all examples of input devices.

ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that the data it contains is They all take information from the outside world (key presses, hand
never lost, even if the power is switched off. movements, images), convert them into data and then send this data
into the computer for processing.
This 'boot up' software is known as the BIOS (Basic Input Output
System)

1.5.0 Peripheral Devices

Technically, a computer need only be made up of a CPU and some
RAM. But a computer like this would not be much use to anybody –
other devices need to be connected to allow data to be passed in and
out of the computer.

The general name for these extra devices is ‘peripheral devices’. 1.5.2 What Are Output Devices?
They are usually categorised into input devices, output devices and Devices that take data from the computer are known as output
storage devices. devices.

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 A hard drive, a CD-ROM, a floppy disc and a USB memory stick are
all examples of secondary storage devices.

Secondary storage is non-volatile, so data that is stored on these

devices remains there safely.

When we talk about 'saving' a file, what we mean is moving data from
volatile RAM to non-volatile secondary storage.
A monitor, a printer and a loudspeaker are all examples of output
e.g. If we are typing a letter using Word, the data for the letter is in
devices.
RAM (if the power goes off we lose it all).

They all take information from the computer and convert it into real When we save the letter, the data is copied from RAM to a storage
world things (images, paper hardcopy, sound). device such as a memory stick or hard-drive for safe-keeping.

1.6 What is an Operating System?

An operating system is a special piece of software that manages the

general operation of a computer system:

 It provides a user interface so that we can interact with the

1.5.3 What is Secondary / Backing Storage? computer
Secondary storage (sometimes called backing storage) is the name  It manages applications that are running on the computer,
for all of the devices (apart from ROM and RAM) that can store data starting them when the user requests, and stopping them when
they are no longer needed
in a computer system.
 It manages files, helping us save our work, organise our files,
find files that we have saved and load files
 It manages the computer's memory, deciding what should be
loaded into memory and what should be removed
 It looks after computer security, preventing unauthorised
access to the system
 It manages the computer’s input and output hardware such as
printers, etc.

Without an operating system, a computer is of little use.

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But, just having an operating system running alone on a computer is  Graphical User Interface (GUI)
also not very useful - we need to have application software (such as  Command-Line Interface (CLI)
Word, Excel, etc.) so that we can actually do useful tasks with the
computer.
An operating system is a bit like the manager of a factory - the
manager’s job is to keep the factory running smoothly, to make sure
all the sections of the factory work together, to check that deliveries
arrive on time, etc.

But, for the factory to actually make anything, other people (the
workers) are required - the manager cannot make anything
him/herself.

1.7.1 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A GUI is an interface built around visual (graphical) things:

 Windows are regions of the screen used to display information

 Icons are small pictures that are used to represent folders,
software, etc.
 Menus are lists of options the user can select from
Operating systems that you may have heard of:  A pointer is an arrow that can be moved around the screen
and is used to select things
 Windows XP
 Windows Vista Windows XP is an example of an operating system with a GUI.
 Mac OS X
 Linux

1.7 User Interface

The system that people use to interact with a computer (to give it
commands, to see the results of those commands, etc.) is known as the
user interface.

There are two that you need to be aware of:

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GUIs are quite easy to use due to the visual nature of the interface – The user would have to learn a whole set of strange commands so that
the user has lots of visual clues as to what things do. they could make use of the computer system. Plus it was not very
interesting look at – no visual clues to tell you what to do next.
However, to display all of the nice graphics required by a GUI takes a
lot of computing power so quite a powerful computer is needed. This meant computers used to be quite difficult to use, so this type of
interface is only really suitable for expert users.
A GUI is sometimes called a WIMP interface:
Command-line interfaces are still used today on many servers.
Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer
These computers need to use all of their computing power running
1.7.2 Command Line Interface (CLI) networks, etc. so they do not use GUIs.

Many years ago when computers were not very powerful they could
not display the colourful graphics required for a GUI. The only
interface available to most computer uses was the ‘command line’.

The user would see nothing but a black screen. They would have to
type a command to make anything happen.

e.g. To copy a text file called NOTES from a floppy disc to the hard
drive the user would have to type:

> COPY A:\NOTES.TXT C:\

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2.0 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers come in all sorts of shapes and sizes. You are all familiar
desktop PCs and laptops, but did you know that computers can be as
small as your mobile phone (in fact your phone is a computer!) and as
large as a room?!

2.1 Mainframe Computer

A mainframe computer is a large computer, often used by large

businesses, in government offices, or by universities. From their invention back in the 1940s until the late 1960s, computers
were large, very expensive machines that took up the whole of a room
Mainframe computers are typically:
(sometimes several!) These were the only computers available.
 Powerful - they can process vast amounts of data, very
quickly The circuit-boards of these computers were attached to large, metal
 Large - they are often kept in special, air-conditioned rooms racks or frames. This gave them the nickname 'mainframe'
 Multi-user - they allow several users (sometimes hundreds) to computers.
use the computer at the same time, connected via remote
Some of the most powerful mainframe computers can process so much
terminals (screens and keyboards)
data in such a sort time, that they are referred to as 'supercomputers'

2.2 Personal Computer (PC)

The early 1980s saw a revolution in computing: The creation of

computers that were small enough to fit on a desk, and cheap enough
that everyone could have their own, personal computer, instead of
having to share access to a mainframe.

These computers came to be known as desktop computers, or

personal computers (PCs).

A typical PC contained the same basic components as a mainframe

computer (CPU, RAM, storage, etc.) but at a fraction of the size and
cost.

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 2.3 Laptop Computer

A 'laptop' computer is a light, compact and portable PC.

Laptops contain a rechargeable battery so that they can be used even

when not plugged in to a mains power supply. They also have a built-
in LCD monitor.

To make them as portable as possible, most laptops try to avoid any

sort of cable or wire. Instead of a mouse, a track-pad is used. Instead
of a wired connection to a network or printer, 'wireless' radio
connections are used.

Early PCs were quite unlike the PCs that we all use today:

 Displays were black and white, and only displayed text (no
graphics)
 No hard-drives (way too expensive)
 Just a few 100 kB of RAM (not MB or GB!)
 Slow - a typical speed would be 5MHz (not GHz!)
 No mouse (no pointer to move!)
 Light brown case (for some reason every early PC was
brown!)

Because PCs were so much smaller than mainframe computers, they

were called 'microcomputers' for a while
Early portable computers were far from being 'laptops' - you would
have crushed your legs if you'd tried to put these beasts on your lap!

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2.4 Palmtop Computer

A palmtop computer is similar to a laptop computer, but smaller. It's

small enough to fit in the palm of your hand (hence the name!)

Palmtops are usually not very powerful since fast CPUs require a
large battery and get hot - both problems in a small device.

A typical palmtop have a very small keyboard - too small to type on

normally. Instead the user types using both thumbs. Also there is no
room for a trackpad, so a touchscreen or tiny joystick is used instead.

Palmtops are extremely portable, but the small keyboard and screen
make the devices tiring to use for long periods.
Early palmtop computers were pretty basic by today's standards

Palmtops are often called ultra-mobile PCs (UMPC)

3.5 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

A PDA is similar to a palmtop computer, except it is even more

compact, and typically has no keyboard, using a touch-screen for all
data input. Since the screen is so small, many PDAs have a small
stylus (plastic stick) that is used to press things on the screen.

Most PDAs use some sort of handwriting-recognition system to

allow the user to write on the screen, and have their writing converted
into text.

PDAs tend to be used a 'digital diaries' allowing users to take their e-

mail, documents, appointments, etc. with them wherever they go.

Note: You never see PDAs any more since modern 'smart' phones can
do all of this, and work as a phone too!

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Early PDAs, like early palmtops, were pretty basic. But they were a
revolutionary way to take digital data with you on the move.

In the 1990s every business person either had, or wanted one of these!

PDAs are often called Pocket-PCs (for obvious reasons!)

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3.0 NPUT DEVICES

3.1 Alphanumeric Keyboard

A very common, general purpose, input device that allows text (like
abc..), numbers (like 123…) and symbols (like %$@...) to be entered
into a computer.

A keyboard is simply a set of buttons. Each button has a symbol

assigned.
3.3 PIN Pad

This is a device with a numeric keypad used to enter a person’s

Personal Identity Number (PIN) e.g. when paying with a credit card.

PIN pads are also found on electronic door locks – you enter a PIN to
unlock the door.

3.2 Numeric Keypad

A small keyboard that only has numbers.

Used to enter numeric data into computers such as those in ATMs.

Most computer keyboards have a numeric keypad on the right side,

and most mobile phones (there are also computers) have a one for
entering phone numbers, etc. These devices are used to move an on-screen pointer or cursor
(usually an arrow). They are commonly used with graphical user
interfaces (GUIs)

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3.4 Mouse

A pointing device found on most PCs. Sensors on the bottom of the

mouse detect when the mouse is moved. Data about this movement is 3.6Trackball / Tracker Ball
sent to the computer.
This pointing device is not moved about like a mouse, instead it has a
Often used to control the pointer in a GUI. large ball that the user spins. Data about which direction the ball is
spun is passed to the computer.

It can be used to control a GUI pointer.

Tracker balls are often used by people with limited movement

(disabled) or by the very young since they are easier to use than a
mouse.

3.5 Touchpad / Trackpad

A pointing device found on most laptops. Used instead of a mouse

since it takes up less space. The user moves a finger across the touch
pad and this movement data is sent to the computer.

Usually used to control the pointer in a GUI.

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3.6 Touch Screen

A touch screen is an alternative to a separate pointing device. With a

touch screen the user selects items on the screen by touching the
surface. This makes touch screen systems very intuitive and simple to
use.

Often used for information terminals in public places e.g. libraries or

museums where mice or keyboards may be stolen or damaged.

Because they are so intuitive to use, and now they are getting cheaper
to manufacture, touch screens will probably become the most common
hardware interface for our electronic gadgets.

3.7 Graphics Tablet

A pointing device often used by designers and artists to allow

natural hand movements to be input to graphics applications.
A stylus is held like a pen and moved over the surface of the tablet.
Data about the stylus movements are sent to the computer.

Since it is so like using a pen, it is very easy to create ‘hand-drawn’

sketches.

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3.7 Joystick / Joypad

Used mainly for playing games. The user moves the joystick
left/right, forward/back and data about these movements are sent to
the computer.
Small joysticks can also be found on some mobile phones.

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 3.9 Scanner

A device that ‘scans’ images, book pages, etc.

3.8 Light Pen
Scanning is basically taking a close-up photograph (just very slowly
A light pen is a device used as a pointing device or to ‘write’ on the and with great detail). The scanned image data is passed to the
screen of a computer. computer.

Light pens are rarely used today since graphics tablets and high- The most common type of scanner is the flat-bed scanner which has a
quality touch screens provide similar functionality. glass plate on which the item to be scanned is placed. The item is
illuminated and an image of it is captured by a moving scan ‘head’.

Scanned images can be further processed once inside the computer,

e.g. OCR of printed text.

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 3.11 Video Camera

A device that captures moving images, or video.

Like a digital camera, most video cameras do not directly input data
into a computer – the captured movies are stored on video-tape or
memory cards and later transferred to a computer.

However, there are some situations where video cameras do feed

video data directly into a computer: television production and video-
3.10 Digital Camera conferencing. In these situations the video data is required in real-
time.
A device that captures digital photographs.

Most digital cameras do not directly input data into a computer - they
store photographs on memory cards. The photographs can later be
transferred to a computer.

A modern digital camera can capture 10 Megapixels or more per

photograph - that’s 10,000,000 coloured dots (pixels) in every photo!

3.12 Web Cam

This is a very basic video camera used to feed live video into a
computer.

The video data from a web cam is low quality compared to a full
A digital camera in fact contains a small computer that controls video camera. However it is good enough for web chats (e.g. using a
camera focus, stores images, etc. messenger application such as MSN Messenger or Skype).

The camera’s computer runs a very simple operating system (stored Usually a web cam is clipped to the top of a monitor, but many
on ROM) and usually provides a menu-based GUI for the user. laptops now have web cams built into the edge of the screen.

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3.13 Microphone

An input device that converts sound into a signal that can be fed into
a computer.

The signal from a microphone is usually analogue so, before it can be

processed by a computer, it must be converted into digital data. An
Analogue-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) is used for this (usually built
into the computer’s sound card)
Many headphones now come with microphones to allow them to be
used with chat and phone applications

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13.14 Magnetic Strip Reader 3.15 Smart Card / 'Chip' Reader

Many plastic cards, such as credit cards, have a strip of material that Modern credit cards and ID cards don’t use a magnetic strip. Instead
can be magnetised on the back. Data can be stored here in the form they have a tiny ‘chip’ of computer memory embedded inside them.
of magnetised dots. (These cards are often referred to as smart cards.)

Usually the data storedon this strip in the same data shown on the Data can be stored in this memory and read back using a ‘chip’
front of the card (e.g. the credit card number, expiry date and reader.
customer name).
A card is inserted into the reader where metal contacts connect to the
The stripe allows this data to be input to a computer system faster and metal pads on the front face of the card. The reader can then access
more accurately than by typing it in. the memory chip and the data stored on it.

A magnetic strip/stripe reader is used to read the data from the stripe. Smart cards can store much more data than magnetic strip cards, e.g.
This is usually done by ‘swiping’ the card through a slot on the an ID smart card would store not only the owner’s name and card
reader. number, but might also have a digital image of the person.

Satellite TV decoders use smart cards to store which channels a user

has paid for. The data is encrypted so that it is not easy to alter (you
can’t add new channels without paying!)

Many types of card use this system: id cards, phone cards, credit
cards, doorsecurity cards, etc.

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 bottom of each bank cheque in special magnetic ink using a special
font. These numbers can be detected by an MICR reader.

All data could be input to a computer using a keyboard, but this

would often be a slow process, and mistakes would be made.
13.17 OMR Scanner
Sometimes speed and accuracy is required...
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is a technology that allows the
3.16 MICR Reader data from a multiple-choice type form to be read quickly and
accurately into a computer.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is a technology that
allows details from bank cheques to be read into a computer quickly Special OMR forms are used which have spaces that can be coloured
and accurately. in (usually using a pencil). These marks can then be detected by an
OMR scanner.
The cheque number and bank account number are printed at the

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Common uses of OMR are multiple-choice exam answer sheets and
lottery number forms.

13.18 OCR Scanner

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software technology that

can convert images of text into an actual text file that can then be
edited, e.g. using word-processing software). The result is just as if the
text had been typed in by hand.

OCR is typically used after a page of a book has been scanned. The
scanned image of the page is then analysed by the OCR software
which looks for recognisable letter shapes and generates a matching
text file.

Advanced OCR software can recognise normal handwriting as well

as printed text - this is usually called handwriting recognition.

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 Barcode can be found on many other items that have numeric codes
which have to be read quickly and accurately - for example ID cards.

3.19 Barcode Reader / Scanner

A barcode is simply a numeric code represented as a series of lines.

These lines can be read by a barcode reader/scanner.

The most common use of barcode readers is at Point-of-Sale (POS) in

a shop. The code for each item to be purchased needs to be entered
into the computer. Reading the barcode is far quicker and more
accurate than typing in each code using a keypad.

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4.0 OUTPUT DEVICES Modern flat-screen monitors have a picture quality that is as good as
CRT monitors.
4.1 CRT Monitor

A monitor displays text and image data passed to it by the computer.

A cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitor is the type that has been around
for years and is large and boxy.

CRT monitors are heavy and they take up a lot of desk space. They
have largely been replaced by flat-screen monitors. However some
are still used in the design industry since the colour accuracy and
brightness of CRT monitors is excellent, and designers need to see
true-to-life colours.

Also, CRT monitors are generally cheaper than flat-screen monitors.

TFT and LCD are two of the technologies used in flat-screen

monitors: TFT is Thin-Film-Transistor, and LCD is Liquid-Crystal
Display.

Another technology that may replace these is OLED, or Organic

Light-Emitting Diodes.

4.3 Digital / Multimedia Projector

Digital projectors are used in situations when a very large viewing

area is required, for example during presentations, for advertising,
or in your home for watching movies.
4.2 Flat-Screen Monitor (TFT or LCD)

Over the past few years, as they have come down in price, flat-screen
displays have replaced CRT monitors.

Flat-screen monitors are light in weight and they take up very little
desk space.

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A projector connects to a computer, a DVD player or a satellite
receiver just like a ordinary monitor.

The image is produced inside the device and then projected out A normal PC has no way of knowing what is happening in the real
through a large lens, using a powerful light source. world around it. It doesn’t know if it is light or dark, hot or cold, quiet
or noisy. How do we know what is happening around us? We use our
eyes, our ears, our mouth, our nose and our skin - our senses.

A normal PC has no senses, but we can give it some: We can connect

sensors to it...

A sensor is a device that converts a real-world property (e.g.

temperature) into data that a computer can process.

Examples of sensors and the properties they detect are...

4.5 Loudspeaker
Sensor What it Detects
If you want to hear music or sounds from your computer, you will Temperature Temperature
have to attach loudspeakers. They convert electrical signals into
sound waves. Light Light / dark
Pressure Pressure (e.g. someone standing on it)
Loudspeakers are essential for applications such as music editing,
video conferencing, watching movies, etc. Moisture Dampness / dryness
Water-level How full / empty a container is
Movement Movement nearby

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 Proximity How close / far something is Printing / Plotting

Switch or button If something is touching / pressing it If you want a physical copy of some data on paper (a ‘hardcopy’)
you will need a device that can make marks on paper - a printer or a
plotter...
A sensor measures a specific property data and sends a signal to the
computer. Usually this is an analogue signal so it needs to be 4.6 Dot Matrix Printer
converted into digital data for the computer to process. This is done
using by an Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC). A dot-matrix printer is named after the pattern (a grid or ‘matrix’) of
dots used when creating the paper printout.
Sensors are used extensively in monitoring / measuring / data
logging systems, and also in computer control systems. These dots are formed by tiny pins in the printer’s print head that hit
an inked ribbon against the paper leaving marks. As the print head
moves along it leaves a pattern of dots behind it which can form
letters, images, etc.

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Dot matrix printers often use continuous stationary: long, continuous
strips of paper (rather than separate sheets of A4 like ink-jet and laser
printers use).

After printing, the printout is torn off from the long strip.

Dot-matrix print quality is poor, the printers are noisy, and there are
much better printing systems available today. However, the dot-matrix
printers are still used in certain situations:

 Since the pins actually hit the paper, several ‘carbon-copies’

can be printed in one go. An example of this is airline tickets
which have several duplicate pages, all printed in one go
 The print mechanism is very cheap, and the inked ribbons last
for a long time. So, where cheap, low-quality printouts are
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required, dot-matrix printers are used. An example is shop
receipts.

4.7 InkJet Printer

Cheap, high-quality, full-colour printing became available during

the 1980s due to the development of ink-jet printers.

These printers have a similar print-head mechanism to a dot-matrix

printer. The print-head passes left and right across the paper.
However, instead of using pins to hit inky marks onto the paper, the
ink-jet squirts tiny droplets of ink onto the surface of the paper.
Several coloured inks can be used to produce full-colour printouts.

The droplets of ink come from tiny holes (the jets) which are less than
the width of a human hair in size. Each droplet creates a tiny dot on
the paper. Since the dots are so small, the quality of the printout is
excellent (1200 dots-per-inch are possible). This is perfect for
photographs.

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Ink-jet printers are very quiet in use. Since they have so few moving different to a dot-matrix or ink-jet, and you don’t need to know the
parts they are also cheap to manufacture and thus cheap to purchase. details.)
However, the ink is very expensive to buy (this is how the printer
companies make their profits!) so the printers are expensive to use. The laser and toner system allows very fast printing compared to
other printers (just a few seconds per page).

Laser printers are very common in offices since they print very
quickly, are cheap to use and are reasonably quiet.

This is a close-up of the tiny ink dots on a page. The dots combine to
form light and dark areas.

4.8 Laser Printer

Laser printers are very complex devices, and thus expensive to buy.
However they are very cheap to use. This is because they produce
marks on paper using a fine dust called toner which is relatively
cheap to buy. A single toner cartridge will often last for 5,000-10,000
pages of printing.

The laser printer uses a complex system, involving a laser, to make Plotter
the toner stick to the required parts of the paper. (This system is very
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Plotters create hard-copy in a very different way to printers. Instead of
building up text and images from tiny dots, plotters draw on the paper
using a pen.

The pens are held in an arm which can lift the pen up or down, and
which can move across the paper. The arm and pen create a drawing
just like a human could, but much more accurately and more quickly.
Plotters are only suitable for producing line drawings. They cannot
Different coloured pens can be used to produce coloured line produce the kind of text and images that an ink-jet or laser printer
drawings. could. (So you cannot use a plotter to produce photos for example)
Plotters are often used by designers and architects since they work
with huge pieces of paper, far bigger than anything a normal printer
could work with...

Plotters have been largely superseded by large-format ink jet printers

that can produce more detailed printouts and in full-colour

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5.0 STORAGE MEDIA
When we talk about ‘storing’ data, we mean putting the data in a
known place. We can later come back to that place and get our data
back again.

‘Writing’ data or ‘saving’ data are other ways of saying ‘storing’

data.

‘Reading’ data, ‘retrieving’ data or ‘opening’ a file are ways of

saying that we are getting our data back from its storage location.
5.2 Backing Storage

Backing storage (sometimes known as secondary storage) is the

name for all other data storage devices in a computer: hard-drive, etc.

Backing storage is usually non-volatile, so it is generally used to

store data for a long time.
Backing storage devices are slower to access, but can hold data
permanently...
5.1 Main Memory

Main memory (sometimes known as internal memory or primary

storage) is another name for RAM (and ROM).

Main memory is usually used to store data temporarily. In the case

of RAM, it is volatile (this means that when power is switched off all
of the data in the memory disappears).

Main memory is used to store data whilst it is being processed by the

CPU. Data can be put into memory, and read back from it, very
quickly. The device that actually holds the data is known as the storage
Memory is fast to access, but only holds data temporarily... medium (‘media’ is the plural).

The device that saves data onto the storage medium, or reads data
from it, is known as the storage device.

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 1,000B = 1kB
Sometimes the storage medium is a fixed (permanent) part of the
storage device, e.g. the magnetic coated discs built into a hard drive A million bytes is known as a megabyte (MB)

Sometimes the storage medium is removable from the device, e.g. a 1,000,000B = 1MB
CD-ROM can be taken out of a CD drive.
A thousand million bytes is called a gigabyte (GB)

1,000,000,000B = 1GB

A million million bytes is called a terabyte (TB)

1,000,000,000,000B = 1TB
Even a very basic storage devices like a floppy disc can storage over a
megabyte of data - that's over 1 million letters or numbers!

And modern hard drives can store a terabyte of data or more - that's
more words than you could type even if you started now, and typed
until your old age!
Some storage media can only store a very limited amount of data,
whilst others can store vast amounts...

We refer to a collection of data stored in a computer system as a ‘file’.

Files are often organised into ‘folders’.

Whenever you click ‘Save’ in an application, burn files to a CD-R,

Data storage capacity is measured in bytes (B). copy music onto your MP3 player, or drag and drop a file onto
memory stick, you are using storage devices - devices that can store
A thousand bytes is known as a kilobyte (kB) and retrieve data.
30
Serial / Sequential Access

A serial (or sequential) access storage device is one that stores files
one-by-one in a sequence. Systems that store things on tape (video, music, computer data, etc.)
are always serial access
A non-computer serial access device that will be familiar to you is a
VHS videotape. Because video is stored on a long piece of tape, when Direct / Random Access
TV shows are recorded onto the tape, they go on one-by-one, in
order... A direct (or ‘random’) access storage device is one that stores files so
that they can be instantly accessed - there is no need to search
through other files to get to the one you want.

An example of a direct access device would be a DVD movie. Unlike

the VHS videotape movie, you can jump to any scene on a DVD.

All parts of the DVD are directly accessible. This type of file storage
If you want to watch a show that you recorded earlier, you have to is called direct access.
rewind / fast-forward through all other shows until you find it.

The shows are only accessible in the same order that you recorded
them. This type of one-by-one storage and access is called serial
access.

31
 Fast devices have speeds measured in millions of Bps (MBps).

E.g. a hard-drive can save/read data at a speed of 300MBps (5000

times quicker than the floppy!)

Why Magnetic?

Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of tiny
magnetised dots. These dots are created, read and erased using
magnetic fields created by very tiny electromagnets.

Some storage devices can access data very quickly, whilst others are In the case of magnetic tape the dots are arranged along the length of a
extremely slow... long plastic strip which has been coated with a magnetisable layer
(audio and video tapes use a similar technology).

In the case of magnetic discs (e.g. floppy disc or hard-drive), the dots
are arranged in circles on the surface of a plastic, metal or glass disc
that has a magnetisable coating.

Access speeds are measured in bytes per second (Bps).

Slow devices have speeds measured in thousands of Bps (kBps). Hard Drives

E.g. a floppy disc can save/read data at a speed of 60kBps Hard-drives have a very large storage capacity (up to 1TB). They
can be used to store vast amounts of data. Hard-drives are random

32
access devices and can be used to store all types of films, including
huge files such as movies. Data access speeds are very fast.

Data is stored inside a hard-drive on rotating metal or glass discs

(called ‘platters’).

Portable Hard Drive

A portable hard-drive is one that is placed into a small case along
with some electronics that allow the hard-drive to be accessed using a
USB or similar connection.
Fixed Hard Drive
A hard-drive built into the case of a computer is known as ‘fixed’.
Almost every computer has a fixed hard-drive. Portable hard-drives allow very large amounts of data to be
transported from computer to computer.
Fixed hard-drives act as the main backing storage device for almost
all computers since they provide almost instant access to files
(random access and high access speeds).

Many portable music players (such as the iPod classic) contain tiny
hard-drives. These miniature devices are just not much bigger than a
stamp, but can still store over 100MB of data!

33
 Removeable Media Magnetic Discs

Floppy Disc
A removable, portable, cheap, low-capacity (1.44MB) storage
medium. Floppy discs are random access devices used for transfer
small amounts of data between computers, or to back-up small files,
etc. Access times are slow.

Almost every PC used to have a floppy disc drive. These are obsolete
now, having been replaced by higher capacity technology such as CD-
ROMs, DVDs and USB memory sticks.
Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is a large capacity, serial access medium. Because it is

a serial access medium, accessing individual files on a tape is slow.

Tapes are used where large amounts of data need to be stored, but
where quick access to individual files is not required. A typical use is
for data back-up (lots of data, but rarely only accessed in an
emergency)

Tapes are also used and in some batch-processing applications (e.g.

to hold the list of data that will be processed).
Zip Disc
A removable and portable storage medium, similar in appearance to
a floppy disk, but with a much higher capacity (100MB, 250MB or
750MB).

Zip discs are random access devices which were used for data back-
up or moving largefiles between computers.

Another obsolete storage device, zip discs were a popular replacement

for floppy discs for a few years, but they never caught on fully before
being superseded by cheaper media like CD-ROMs and CD-Rs

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Jaz Disc
A removable and portable storage medium based on hard-drive
technology, with a large capacity (1GB or 2GB).
Why 'Optical'?
Jaz discs are random access devices which were used for data back-
up or moving large files between computers. Optical storage devices save data as patterns of dots that can be read
using light. A laser beam is the usual light source.
Discs were expensive to buy and not very reliable.
The data on the storage medium is read by bouncing the laser beam
Like the Zip disc, this system never really caught on and was
off the surface of the medium. If the beam hits a dot it is reflected
superseded by far cheaper and more reliable and cheaper technology.
back differently to how it would be if there were no dot. This
difference can be detected, so the data can be read.

Dots can be created using the laser beam (for media that is writable
such as CD-Rs). The beam is used in a high-power mode to actually

35
mark the surface of the medium, making a dot. This process is known
as ‘burning’ data onto a disc.

This is a magnified view of the dots on the surface of a CD.

The different patterns of dots correspond to the data stored on the

disc.

Read-Only Optical Discs

DVD-ROM
Read-only optical discs have data written onto them when they are Digital Versatile Disc - Read-Only Memory (DVD-ROM) discs can
manufactured. This data cannot be changed. hold around 4.7GB of data (a dual-layer DVD can hold twice that).
DVD-ROMs are random-access devices.
CD-ROM
Compact Disc - Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) discs can hold DVD-ROMs are used in the same way as CD-ROMs (see above) but,
around 800MB of data. The data cannot be altered (non-volatile), so since they can hold more data, they are also used to store high-quality
cannot be accidently deleted. CD-ROMs are random-access devices. video.

CD-ROMs are used to distribute all sorts of data: software (e.g.

office applications or games), music, electronic books (e.g. an
encyclopaedia with sound and video.)

36
 The 'Blu' part of Blu-Ray refers to the fact that the laser used to read
High Capacity Optical Discs
the disc uses blue light instead of red light. Blue light has a shorter
wave-length than red light (used with CDs and DVDs).
Blu-Ray
Blu-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs. A Blu-Ray disc can Using a blue laser allows more data to be placed closer together on a
hold 25 - 50GB of data (a dual-layer Blu-Ray disc can hold twice Blu-Ray disc, than on a DVD or CD, so Blu-Ray has a much higher
that). Blu-Ray discs are random-access devices. storage capacity than these older discs.
Blu-Ray discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) HD DVD
but, since they can hold more data, they are also used to store very High-density DVD (HD-DVD) discs can hold around 15GB of data (a
high-quality, high-definition (HD)video. dual-layer HD-DVD can hold twice that). HD-DVDs are random-
access devices.

HD-DVD discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above)
but, since they can hold more data, they are also used to store very
high-quality, high-definition (HD)video.

37
 cannot be erased.

When CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are burnt the laser makes marks on the
metal layer, but in a way that can be undone. So these discs can be
erased.
DVD-RAM
DVD-Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) discs are a type of re-
writable DVD. They often come in a floppy-disc style case (to
protect the disc).

DVD-RAM discs have a similar capacity to a normal DVD, holding

4.7GB of data. DVD-RAM discs are random-access devices.
The HD-DVD format was launched at the same time as Blu-Ray. For
about a year they competed to be the 'next DVD'. For various reasons, DVD-RAM discs are used in many camcorders (video recording
Blu-Ray won the fight, and the HD-DVD format has been abandoned. cameras).

Recordable Optical Discs The discs are much higher quality than normal DVD-RWs and can
reliably store data for up to 30 years. This means that they are often
Recordable optical discs can have datawritten onto them (‘burnt’)
used for video and data back-up and archiving.
by a computer user using a special disc drive (a disc ‘burner’).

CD-R and DVD-R

CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can
have data burnt onto them, but not erased. You can keep adding
data until the disc is full, but you cannot remove any data or re-use a
full disc.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) and DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW) discs,
unlike CD-Rs and DVD-Rs, can have data burnt onto them and also
erased so that the discs can be re-used.

When CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are burnt, the laser makes permanent
marks on the silver-coloured metal layer. This is why these discs

38
 ROM) but the data stored in it can also be erased or changed (like
RAM).

Flash memory can be found in many data storage devices...

You might wonder why, since flash memory is non-volatile, normal

computers don’t use it instead of RAM. If they did we would have
computers that you could turn off, turn back on again and no data
would be lost – it would be great!

The reason is speed – saving data to flash memory is very slow

compared to saving it to RAM. If a computer were to use flash
memory as a replacement for RAM it would run very slowly.

However some portable computers are starting to use flash memory

(in the form of solid-state ‘discs’ as a replacement for hard-drives. No
moving parts mean less to go wrong and longer battery life.

USB Memory Sticks

'Solid-State'?
Memory sticks (or ‘thumb-drives’) have made many other forms of
The term ‘solid-state’ essentially means ‘no moving parts’. portable storage almost obsolete (why burn a CD or DVD when you
can more easily copy your files onto a memory stick?).
Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no
moving parts (no reels of tape, no spinning discs, no laser beams, Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage devices.
etc.)
Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a
Solid-state storage devices store data using a special type of memory USB interface. Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive.
called flash memory... You can then add files, erase files, etc. You can use it to move any
type of file between computers.

Flash Memory Flash memory used to be very expensive, but in recent years it has
Flash memory is a type of Electronically-Erasable Programmable become much cheaper and you can now buy a 16GB memory stick
Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). Flash memory is non-volatile (like for just a few dollars.

39
Memory Cards

Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players,

etc.) require compact, non-volatile data storage. Flash memory cards
provide this and come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is the SD

Card. The cards store the digital images taken by the camera.

Mobile phones contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card that

contains the phone’s number, the phonebook numbers, text messages,
etc.

Many phones also have extra memory cards to store music, video,
photos, etc. (e.g Tiny Micro-SD cards).

40
Smart Cards

Many credit cards (e.g. ‘chip-and-pin’ cards), door entry cards,

satellite TV cards, etc. have replaced the very limited storage of the
magnetic strip (the dark strip on the back of older cards) with flash
memory. This is more reliable and has a much larger storage
capacity.

Cards with flash memory are called smart cards.

Note: If you move the photos from the hard-drive to a CD-R, you do
not have a back-up – you still only have one copy of the photos, but
now they are on a CD instead of the hard-drive.

You only have a backup if you have a second copy of your data.

Why Backup Your Data?

If you delete a file by accident, your computer breaks, your laptop is

stolen, or your business burns to the ground, having a backup copy
means that you have not lost your precious data. You can recover your
lost files and continue working.

What is a Backup?

A backup simply means making one or more copies of your data.

For example, if you have a folder of photos stored on the hard-drive of Most businesses use computers to store very important data (customer
your laptop, you might back them up by copying them to a CD-R. records, financial information, designs for products, etc.) If this data is
lost, the business could possibly have to close. Backing-up business
data is essential.

41
How Are Backups Created?

Personal backups of the data on your hard-drive can be made by…

 Burning files to a CD-R

 Copying files to an external hard-drive
 Copying the files to another computer on a network

Businesses backup essential data by…

 Making copies of data very regularly

 Using large-capacity media such as magnetic tape
 Keeping old copies of backups, just in case
 Automating the system so that nobody forgets to do it!
 Keeping backup media off-site (in case of fire or theft)

42
6.0 COMPUTERS IN EVERY DAY LIFE 6.1 Motor

Motors can provide movement.

A normal Personal computer has no way of affecting what is
happening around it. It can’t turn on the lights, or make the room For example, the motor in a washing machine can be controlled by a
hotter. How do we change what is happening around us? We use our computer - it is switched on when the clothes are loaded for washing
muscles to move things, press things, lift things, etc. (and we can also and switched off at the end of the wash.
make sound using our voice).
Computer-controlled motors are also found in microwave ovens (to
A normal PC has no muscles, but we can give it some. In fact we can turn the food around) and air-conditioning units (to drive the fan)
give it the ability to do lots of things by connecting a range of
actuators to it…

An actuator is a device, controlled by a computer, that can affect the

real-world.

Examples of actuators, and what they can do are...

Actuator What it Can Do

Light bulb or LED Creates light
Heater Increases temperature
Cooling Unit Decreases temperature
Motor Spins things around
6.2 Pumps
Pump Pushes water / air through pipes
A pump is basically a motor attached to a device that can push water
Buzzer / Bell / Siren Creates noise or air along pipes. When the motor is switched on, water or air flows
along the pipes to places it is needed.

Pumps are used in many places: as part of watering systems in

Note: some of these devices require an analogue signal to operate
greenhouses, in factories, etc.
them. This means that they need to be connected to the computer using
a digital-to-analogue convertor (DAC)

43
 6.5 Lights

Lightbulbs and LEDs can by used to provide light, or to indicate

something.

For example, computer-controlled lights are used in traffic lights, at

music concerts. Lights are used in car dashboards to show if the any
of the systems in the car have problems.

6.3 Buzzer

Buzzers can provide noise.

For example, the buzzer in a microwave oven can be switched on by

6.6 Heaters / Coolers
the controlling computer when the food is cooked.
Heaters can provide heat, and coolers can cool things down.
Louder noises can be made using a siren or an electric bell, for
example in a burglar alarm system.
A computer can switch a heater on or off when needed to keep a room
or a greenhouse at the correct temperature during winter.

A computer can switch a cooling unit on or off to keep a room at the

correct temperature during hot weather, or to keep food fresh.

44
Look at the list of devices above. Now try to imagine living without 7.0 COMPUTER HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES
them - washing your clothes by hand! Life would be a lot tougher.
If we use a computer for many hours (as people often do at work),
Microprocessor-controlled devices mean that we have more leisure there are some health issues that might affect us...
time to relax and enjoy ourselves instead of doing household chores.
7.1.0 Health Issues
We are able to communicate with people very easily using
computers, mobile phones, etc. We can become part of online social 7.1.1 Eye-Strain
networks, making friends with people from all over the world.
One health issue that can occur after using computers for a long time
is eye-strain (tiredness of the eyes).
Computers and Internet connections mean that many of the tasks that
involved us leaving the house, for example, shopping for music, This is caused by looking at a monitor which is a constant distance
clothes or food, can now be done on-line. away. The muscles that focus your eyes do not move, and so get tired
and painful. Eye-strain can also cause headaches.
Online shopping gives us more choice of products and saves us
This problem can be solved:
time. It is also great from those who are unable to get out of the house
easily, such as the elderly, or the disabled.  Look away from the monitor at regular intervals – re-focus
on distant or close objects to exercise the muscles in the eye.
 Take regular breaks.
 Use an anti-glare filter in front of the monitor to cut down on
screen reflections that can also tire the eyes.

45
7.1.2 Back and Neck Ache

Many people suffer from back and neck pain after working at a
computer for a long time. This is usually due to them having a bad
sitting posture.

This problem can be solved:

 Use an adjustable, ergonomic chair, and take the time to set

it up properly.
 The computer keyboard and monitor should be at the correct
height for the seated person (keyboard lower than the elbow,
top of monitor at eye level).
 Take regular breaks: get up, walk around, stretch your
muscles
Good Posture

Bad Posture

46
  Use a wrist-rest to support the wrists while typing and when
using the mouse.
 Take regular breaks from typing or using the mouse.

The science of how we interact with the objects around us is called

ergonomics.

An ergonomic chair is one that fits the body well, giving support to
areas such as the lower back (lumbar region)

7.1.3 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and Hands

Any repetitive movement (same movement over and over again) can
result in a health problem called repetitive strain injury (RSI).

In particular, typing and using a mouse for long periods are common
causes of RSI in the wrist (it is often called carpal-tunnel syndrome).
This problem can be solved:
47
7.2.0 Safety Issues with ICT

You wouldn't imagine that using computers could be dangerous, but

there are a few situations that can result in accidents...

Trailing Cables
Computer equipment is often connected to lots of cables: power,
network, etc.

If these cables are laying on the floor, they can cause people to trip
over them

Solution: Place cables inside cable ducts, or under the carpet /

flooring

7.2.2 Overloaded Power Sockets

Plugging too many power cables into a socket can result in the
socket being overloaded, overheating, and a fire starting.

Solution: Never plug too many cables into a socket. Always make sure
there are fire extinguishers nearby

7.2.1 Spilt Drinks or Food

If any liquids are spilt on electrical equipment, such a s a computer, it
can result in damage to the equipment, or an electric shock to the
user.

Solution: Keep drinks and food away from computers

48
Heavy Objects Falling 8.0 COMPUTER NETWORK
Many items of computer equipment are very heavy: CRT monitors, A network is two or more computers, or other electronic devices,
laser printers, etc. Heavy items can cause serious injury if they fall on connected together so that they can exchange data.
people.
For example a network allows computers to share files, users to
Solution: Make sure equipment is placed on strong tables / shelves message each other, a whole room of computers to share a single
printer, etc.

Network connections between computers are typically created using

cables (wires). However, connections can be created using radio
signals (wireless / wi-fi), telephone lines (and modems) or even, for
very long distances, via satellite links.
A computer that is not connected to a network is known as a
standalone computer.

Using a computer connected to a network allows us to…

 Easily share files and data

 Share resources such as printers and Internet connections
 Communicate with other network users (e-mail, instant
messaging, video-conferencing, etc.)

49
  Store data centrally (using a file server) for ease of access
and back-up
 Keep all of our settings centrally so we can use any
workstation

In particular, if we use a computer connected to The Internet, we

can…

 Make use of on-line services such as shopping (e-commerce)

or banking
 Get access to a huge range of information for research
 Access different forms of entertainment (games, video, etc.)
 Join on-line communities (e.g. MySpace, Facebook, etc.) Using a computer connected to a network means that…

 The computer is vulnerable to hackers

 If the network breaks, many tasks become very difficult
 Your computer can more easily be attacked by a virus

In particular, if we use a computer connected to The Internet…

 We have to be careful about revealing personal information

 We have to be careful to avoid suspect websites that might
contain malware
 We have to be aware that information found on The Internet
is not always accurate or reliable

50
8.1 Client and Server
Computers connected together to create a network fall into two
categories: servers and clients (workstations).

Clients

Client computers, or workstations, are the normal computers that

people sit at to get their work done.
When you use your Web browser, you are in fact using a Web client.
When you type in the URL of a web page, you are actually providing
the address of a Web server.

e.g. www.bbc.co.uk is the address of the BBC’s web server.

Your Web browser/client asks this server for the web page you want,
and the server ‘serves’ the page back to the browser/client for you to
see.

Servers

Servers are special, powerful computers that provide ‘services’ to the

client computers on the network.
8.2.0 Types of Networks
These services might include:
8.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Providing a central, common file storage area
 Sharing hardware such as printers A Local Area Network is a network confined to one building or site.
 Controlling who can or can’t have access the network Often a LAN is a private network belonging to an organisation or
 Sharing Internet connections business.

Servers are built to be very reliable. This means that they are much Because LANs are geographically small, they usually use cables or
more expensive that normal computers. low-power radio (wireless) for the connections.

In a small network one server might provide all of these services. In a

larger network there might be many servers sharing the work.

51
 However, WLANs are more difficult to make secure since other
8.2.2 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) people can also try to connect to the wireless network. So, it is very
important to have a good, hard-to-guess password for the WLAN
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses radio signals (WiFi) to connections.
connect computers instead of cables.
Typically, the range of a wireless connection is about 50m, but it
At the centre of the WLAN is a wireless switch or router - a small depends how many walls, etc. are in the way.
box with one or two antennas sticking out the back - used for sending
and receiving data to the computers. (Most laptops have a wireless 8.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)
antenna built into the case.)
A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large area.
It is much more convenient to use wireless connections instead of
running long wires all over a building. A WAN is often created by joining several LANs together, such as
when a business that has offices in different countries links the office
LANs together.

Because WANs are often geographically spread over large areas and
links between computers are over long distances, they often use quite
exotic connections technologies: optical fibre (glass) cables, satellite
radio links, microwave radio links, etc.

52
 such as printers, mice, keyboards, etc.

Bluetooth devices contain small, low-power radio transmitters and

receivers. When devices are in range of other Bluetooth devices, they
detect each other and can be 'paired' (connected)

The Internet is an example of a global WAN .In fact it is the world’s Typical uses of Bluetooth:
largest WAN.
 Connecting a wireless keyboard to a computer
Computers on the International Space Station are linked to the  Connecting a wireless mouse to a computer
Internet, so the you could say the the Internet is now the first off-  Using a wireless headset with a mobile phone
planet WAN!  Printing wirelessly from a computer or PDA
 Transferring data / music from a computer to an MP3 player
8.2.4 Bluetooth (Personal Area Network)  Transferring photos from a phone / camera to another device
 Synchronising calendars on a PDA and a computer
Bluetooth is a wireless networking technology designed for very
short-range connections (typically just a few metres). Because Bluetooth networking only works over very short distances,
and with devices belonging to one user, this type of network is
The idea of Bluetooth is to get rid of the need for all of those cables sometimes called a 'Personal Area Network'
(e.g. USB cables) that connect our computer to peripheral devices

53
The word topology means ‘arrangement’, so when we talk about the In this type of network each computer is connected to a loop of cable,
topology of a network, we mean how the different parts are arranged the ‘ring’. (If you took a bus network and connected the ends of the
and connected together. bus cable together, you would have a ring network.)
A ring network…
There are three common network topologies...
 Can cope with a break in the ring cable since all computers
8.2.5 Bus Network
are still joined together (it is now a bus network)
In this type of network, a long, central cable, the ‘bus’ is used to
connect all of the computers together. Each computer has a short cable
linking it to the ‘bus’.
A bus network…

 Is cheap to install (just one long cable)

 Can be quite slow since all computers share the same cable
when communicating
 Will stop working if there is a break in the central bus cable.

8.2.7 Star Network

In this type of network every computer is connected to a central

device. The device passes messages between computers.

At the centre of a star network you might use a hub (cheap, but
slower) or a switch (more expensive, but faster).

A star network…

 Is quite expensive to install (you have to buy lots of cable and

the central device)
8.2.6 Ring Network  Is very fast since each computer has its own cable which it
doesn’t need to share
 Can cope with a broken cable (only one computer will be
affected)
54
  Will stop working if the central device breaks
 Is the most common network topology

8.3.0 Networking devices

8.2.8 Hybrid Network Computers alone cannot create a computer network, other devices are
needed as well. Devices which help computers to communicate wired
A hybrid network is simply one that combines two or more of the or wirelessly are called networking devices
above basic topologies.
8.3.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)
E.g. A network that has several star networks linked together is a
hybrid network Any computer that is to be connected to a network, needs to have a
network interface card (NIC).

Most modern computers have these devices built into the

motherboard, but in some computers you have to add an extra
expansion card (small circuitboard)

55
 wireless, because they can carry much more data per second, and are
more secure (less open to hacking).

Some computers, such as laptops, have two NICs: one for wired
connections, and one for wireless connections (which uses radio
signals instead of wires)

The most common type of network cable cable in use today looks like
In a laptop, the wireless radio antenna is usually built in to the side of the one shown above, with plastic plugs on the ends that snap into
the screen, so you don't need to have a long bit of plastic sticking out sockets on the network devices.
the side of your computer!
Inside the cable are several copper wires (some used for sending data
8.3.2 Network Cable in one direction, and some for the other direction).

To connect together different devices to make up a network, you need 8.3.3 Hub
cables.
A hub is a device that connects a number of computers together to
Cables are still used in most networks, rather than using only make a LAN.

56
The typical use of a hub is at the centre of a star network (or as part each computer.
of a hybrid network) - the hub has cables plugged into it from each
computer. A switch is a more ‘intelligent’ device than a hub: if it receives a
message, it checks who it is addressed to, and only sends it to that
specific computer. Because of this, networks that use switches are
more secure than those that use hubs, but also a little more
expensive.

A hub is a ‘dumb’ device: if it receives a message, it sends it to every 8.3.5 Router

computer on the network. This means that hub-based networks are
not very secure - everyone can listen in to communications. A router is a network device that connects together two or more
networks.

A common use of a router is to join a home or business network

(LAN) to the Internet (WAN).

Hubs are pretty much obsolete now (you can't buy them any more), The router will typically have the Internet cable plugged into it, as
having been superseded by cheap switches. well as a cable, or cables to computers on the LAN.

8.3.4 Switch

A switch, like a hub, is a device that connects a number of computers

together to make a LAN.

The typical use of a switch is at the centre of a star network (or as

part of a hybrid network) - the switch has cables plugged into it from

57
Alternatively, the LAN connection might be wireless (WiFi), making
the device a wireless router. (A wireless router is actually a router
and wireless switch combined)
Routers are the devices that join together the various different
networks that together make up the Internet.

These routers are much more complex than the one you might have in
your home

8.3.6 Bridge

A bridge is a network device that typically links together two

different parts of a LAN.

Whereas a router is usually used to link a LAN to a WAN (such as the

Internet), a bridge links independent parts of a LAN so that they act as
a single LAN.

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8.3.7 Firewall

A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between

your computer and the rest of the network (where the hackers are!)

If you wish to protect your whole LAN from hackers out on the
Internet, you would place a firewall between the LAN and the
Internet connection.

A firewall blocks unauthorised connections being made to your

computer or LAN. Normal data is allowed through the firewall (e.g. e-
mails or web pages) but all other data is blocked.

59
In addition to physical devices, firewalls can also be software.

In fact most computer operating systems have a software firewall built

in (e.g. Windows, Linux and Mac OS)

8.3.8 Modem

Before the days of broadband Internet connections, most computers

connected to the Internet via telephone lines (dial-up connections).

The problem with using telephone lines is that they are designed to
carry voices, which are analogue signals. They are not designed for
digital data.

The solution was to use a special device to join the digital computer to
the analogue telephone line. This device is known as a modem.

60
9.0.0 Private Networks and Network Security  One or more switches / hubs - to link devices together
 Network cables to connect devices to the switch, etc.
An intranet is the name given to a private network that provides
 A separate wireless access point (or this could be part of the
similar services to The Internet: e-mail, messaging, web pages, etc.
switch) - to allow wireless devices (e.g. laptops or smart-
phones) to join the network
However, these services are only for the users of the intranet – they
 A router to connect your LAN to the Internet (WAN)
are private, not public (unlike Internet services which are generally
 A firewall to protect your network from hackers
public).
 Possibly a bridge if you already have a section of network and
you want your new network to connect to it
Businesses and other organisations often have intranets for use by
 Server(s) to manage network functions such as network
their employees.
security, network file storage, shared resources (such as
printers)
Typical uses of an intranet would be:
You would need to organise some other things:
 Viewing internal web pages (e.g. company calendars, etc.)
 Internal e-mail and instant-messaging between workers
 Set up an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
 Sharing of internal documents
 Get an Internet connection installed from the ISP to your
location
 Configure various bits of hardware and software so that
everything worked with the network

For any network that is more complex than a small home network,
there is a lot to do.

It's not just a case of buying the parts and connecting them together...

 Routers and switches have to be configured (settings changed)

 Network devices need to be given network addresses
 Software needs to be configured to use the network
 Etc...

If you were asked to build a small, Internet-connected network from Networks are pretty complex thing to set-up. The people who do this
scratch, what would you need to do? are called Network Engineers. It's a very interesting technical job, if
you like that sort of thing!
You would need to buy some hardware:

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 etwork.

For example, by keeping office doors locked.

9.1.2 Use a Username and Have a Good Password

The most common way to protect your computer’s data is to setup
user accounts with usernames and passwords. Anyone not having a
username, or not knowing the correct password will be denied access.

For this to be effective passwords must be chosen that are not easy to
guess. Passwords should be a random combination of lowercase
letters, uppercase letters and numbers (and symbols if this is allowed):

As soon as your computer is connected to a network, you have to start  ‘Weak’ passwords: password, 123456, david, 27dec1992
thinking about security – security of your files, information, etc.  ‘Strong’ passwords: s63gRdd1, G66ew$dQ, gdr298783X

Some computer systems replace the typing of usernames and

A network allows a person who does to have physical access to your
passwords with other forms of user identification such as ID cards,
computer (they are not sitting in front of it) to gain access all the
fingerprint readers or voice-print recognition.
same. If your computer is connected to a network, other people can
connect to your computer. 9.1.3 Always Install and Use a Firewall
A firewall is a device, or a piece of software that is placed between
A person who gains unauthorised access to a computer system is often your computer / LAN and the rest of the network / WAN (where the
called a hacker. hackers are!)

You can read about firewalls in the Networking Hardware section.

9.1.0 Preventing Unauthorised Access

There are a number of security measures that you can take to prevent
hackers accessing your computer and all of the data stored on it: 9.2.0 Securing Your Data

9.1.1 Physical Security Often we have data that is private or confidential. This data needs to
The first thing to make sure of is that no unauthorised people can be protected from being viewed by unauthorised people. This is
physically access (sit down in front of) any of the computers on your especially true if the data is to be sent via a public network such as

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The Internet.

The best way to protect data is to encrypt it...

9.2.1 Data Encryption

Encryption is the process of converting information into a form
that is meaningless to anyone except holders of a ‘key’.

For example, if Alice wants to send important, personal messages to

Bob, she must go through the following steps... Now that Bob has a copy of the key, each time Alice needs to send
him a message she starts by encrypting it using special encryption
First Alice needs to generate a secret ‘key’. software and the secret key.

The key is usually a very long, random number. The encrypted message now looks like a jumble of random letters
and numbers.

Alice must then give a copy of this key to Bob. She must make sure
that nobody else can get to the key

(So maybe Alice will visit Bob and give him a copy of the key on a Alice then sends the encrypted message to Bob.
memory stick or floppy disc).
She can use a public network like the Internet, since, even if it gets
stolen, the encrypted message cannot be read or understood
without the key.

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 9.3.0 Hacking and Hackers

What is Hacking?

The word 'hacking' has several meanings, but in the context of ICT, it
is normally taken to mean breaking in to a computer system.

When Bob receives the message, he uses special decryption software

and his copy of the secret key to decrypt the message.

Bob can now read the original message from Alice.

Why Do Hackers Hack?

A hacker may break into a system just out of curiosity or for the
challenge - can they get through the system’s defences? But, it is more
likely that they are breaking in to access data, usually because the
data has value.

For example, if a hacker enters your computer and steals financial

information such as your credit card number, or the password to your
bank account, they could use that information to make purchases.
If a lot of information about you is stolen, a hacker could use this to
impersonate you on-line.

They might apply for new credit cards, take out bank loans, buy cars,
etc. all in your name.

This is known as identity theft.

Can a Computer be Protected from Hacking?

64
Just as in the real world, there is no guaranteed way to stop someone
breaking into a building (you can make it very difficult, but every
security system has its weaknesses), there is also no guaranteed way
to stop someone breaking into a computer system.

However, you can make it difficult enough so that a hacker moves on

and looks for an easier target.

You should:

 Use strong passwords to protect your user login account

 Never reveal your login password to anyone else
 Place a firewall between your computer and any network
 Disconnect from networks when you are not using them
 Encrypt any sensitive information (just in case they get in)

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10.0 THE INTERNET 10.1.0 What is World Wide Web?

The Internet is a world-wide network that has grown and evolved The original World-Wide Web ('The Web', WWW, or 'Web 1.0') was
from an experimental network (ARPANet) created by the US military a collection of mostly static websites that published information. You
back in the 1960s. Over the years, as more and more computers and could visit the sites, read the webpages, look at the pictures, but you
networks have connected to this network, it has grown into the couldn't really interact with the site: you couldn't login, leave
comments, tag images, discuss things, etc. The original Web was a
Internet that we know today.
mostly one-way experience where information was delivered to you.

'Web 2.0' (pronounced "web two-point-oh") is the (slightly annoying)

name given to the the recent development of interactive websites that
are quite different to the old, static websites.

Many websites on the Web today allow users to:

 share information (e.g. notes and photos on Facebook)

 interact (add comments, chat, etc.)
 collaborate on content (e.g. creating pages on Wikipedia)
 create their own content (e.g. videos on YouTube)

The Internet connects millions of people, and thousands of businesses, Web 2.0 is often called the 'Social Web' because of the way that users
governments, schools, universities and other organisations. can interact and share. It's also been called the 'Read-Write Web'
because much of the content is now written by users (they're not just
What Can We Use the Internet For? reading)

The Internet provides the network connections that links computers

together. There are many ways that we can use these connections:
10.2.0 Blogs and Blogging
 View web pages on the WWW (World-Wide Web)
 Sending and receiving e-mail messages A blog is a website where someone (usually a normal person - not a
 Sharing files professional writer) writes about a topic.
 Communicating using voice (VOIP) and video (video-
conferencing) Blogs can be personal (someone writing about their own life, or their
 Playing multi-player games personal views), based on an interest (e.g. football), or some
 Listening to streamed music or watching streamed video businesses also use blogs to write about new products, etc.
A blog allows someone to be a writer and publisher on the Web with
very little effort or cost. A blog can be setup with just a few clicks,
66
whereas a few years ago you'd need a lot of technical knowledge to page, edit things, fix errors, etc.
create your own website.
Wikis are used for websites such as:
Many blogs have systems that allow readers to leave comments and
begin discussions connected with the blog posts.  Encyclopaedia (e.g. Wikipedia)
 Help sites (e.g. This site for Ubuntu Linux)
Blogging (the act of writing a blog) has become very popular over the
past decade or so (there are well over 200 million unique blogs).
Because many people can edit pages on a wiki, you have to be aware
that the information you read may not be entirely accurate -
Some blogs are very popular and have hundreds of thousands of
sometimes people edit pages and write things that are wrong. Usually
readers, but many are only read by a tiny number of readers (probably
the errors are noticed and fixed by other wiki users, but not always.
just the writer's family and friends!)

Blogs allow people to publish their views and opinions very easily,
without anyone else checking what they are writing. For this reason, it
is very important that you do not take the viewpoints expressed on
blogs as facts - they are just one person's opinion and maybe factually
very wrong. The most famous wiki is wikipedia - a user-created encyclopaedia.

Wikis 10.2.1

A wiki is a website that allows users to collaborate (work together) to

create the content. The pages of a wiki can be edited by everyone (or
those who have the password) so that different people can add to the
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Many people do not trust Wikipedia because anyone can edit the Video upload sites are especially popular. However the videos that
pages. However because so many people check the pages so often, are uploaded can sometimes contain offensive scenes (this is why
errors are usually fixed within hours. Many studies have found YouTube is blocked in so many schools).
Wikipedia to be as accurate and reliable as other (non-wiki)
encyclopaedia websites Some popular media upload sites:

10.3.0 Media Uploading Sites  YouTube (video)

 Vimeo (video)
There are many websites that allow users to create, upload and share  Flickr (photos)
their own media such as photos, music or video. Usually other users  PhotoBucket (photos)
can rate or comment on the media that is uploaded leading to these  MySpace (music)
sites often being referred to as 'Social Media' sites.  ccMixter (music)

All media upload sites have rules about the type of media that you can 10.4.0 Social Networks
upload - you have to either own the copyright to the image / music /
video yourself, or have permission from the copyright owner. A social network website is a site that allows user to connect with
other users who are friends / relatives, or who share similar interests.

Connected users can then share information / pictures / files with each
other, send messages, chat, etc.

The most famous video upload site is YouTube.

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  LinkedIn
 MySpace
 Orkut

10.5.0 Internet Use Issues

The Internet and World Wide Web are a fantastic resource for finding
and sharing information. The Web contains literally billions of web
pages containing information about every topic imaginable.

However we need to take care when using the Internet to look for
information, or to send information...

10.5.1 Reliability of Information

The Internet and Web are not regulated - there is no organisation that
controls who can create web pages or what those pages can contain.
Anyone can create web pages and say anything they want to.

In many ways this is a good thing. It means that corrupt organisations

One of the biggest social networking websites is Facebook. or governments, who have always been able to hide details of their
activities, are no longer able to do so. When bad things happen, people
write about it on the Web and the world gets to know, and hopefully
do something about it.

But it’s also a bad thing. It means that people or organisations can
For many people, social networking sites are the main method of easily spread lies and hatred. There are thousands of websites
communicating with friends online. containing bigoted viewpoints, and thousands more that are full of
information that is biased, inaccurate, or just plain wrong.
In fact social networks have surpassed e-mail as the main
communication link for non-business Web users So... how do you which web pages to believe, which information to
trust?
Other examples of popular social networking sites:
 Check several sources of information (go to lots of different
 Bebo websites). If they all say them same thing, it is likely to be true
 Friendster
 Habbo
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  Stick to websites that belong to trusted organisations. If the Avoiding this type of material can be tricky. Many organisations such
website address ends in .gov.uk (the UK government site) it is as schools, some governments (e.g. for religious reasons), and also
more likely to be reliable than one like www.tomiscool.net many parents, make use of web page filtering software. This
 Look at the spelling and grammar used. Reliable websites software attempts to prevent offensive and illegal material being
are usually checked for errors. Too many spelling errors mean accessed.
it’s probably not to be trusted.
Even if filtering software is not installed on a computer, you can still
take steps to help you avoid these types of sites:

 Use the 'safe search' feature on search engines such as

Google.
 Don’t click the links that are shown in junk email (spam)
 Think carefully about the keywords that you use to search
with.

When you are using the Web to research your homework, do you just
use the information on the first website you find?

If you do, you could be making a big mistake! How do you the
information is correct? Why should you trust it?

Keep searching and see if other websites agree. If you are researching the causes of over-heating in young chickens,
searching for ‘hot chicks’ might not find the information that you are
Always double-check the information; otherwise you’ll be getting ‘F’ looking for!
grades instead of ‘A’ grades!
10.5.3 Security of Data Transferred Using the Internet
10.5.2 Undesirable Information
As has been discussed already, you should always consider
In addition to the Web being full of websites with inaccurate encrypting any sensitive or personal data that is sent or accessed
information, there are also a huge number of websites that contain over a public network such as The Internet.
highly offensive, or illegal material.
Many websites, especially onlineshopping or online bankingsites,
70
require you to enter personal information, such as credit card
numbers, social security IDs, etc. To make sure your data is safe,
these websites use encryption - they are called secure websites.

You should always make sure that a website is secure before giving
personal information...

 The website URL (address) should begin with https://...

(normal, unsecure sites have addresses that start with http://...)
 Your web browser should show a closed padlock icon

Below are screenshots of two different web browsers, both showing a

secure site. You can see the https://... URL and also the padlock icon: 10.5.4Phishing

The address of a web page is properly called a URL, which means There have always been dishonest people who try to con (take through
Uniform Resource Locator. deception) money from others. With the rise of the Internet, and e-
mail in particular, these 'con-artists' have a new way to reach millions
URLs have several parts, e.g. of potential victims.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools 'Phishing' is the nickname given to the sending of fraudulent e-

mails that attempt to trick people into revealing details about their
 The first part is the protocol (language) to be used. In this case bank accounts, or other online accounts (e.g. Amazon, eBay, etc.)
it is HTTP (HyperText Transmission Protocol). A secure
website would use HTTPS (S = Secure) The 'phishers' then use these bank details to login to the victim's bank
 The next part is the name of the web server (the computer that account and take their money.
gives out the web pages). In this case it is www.bbc.co.uk
 The final parts are the location and name of the web page on This is an example of a phishing e-mail...
the web server. In this case it is schools

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 Don't become a victim of phishing!

If you receive an e-mail / SMS / instant message / VOIP message

asking for your username / password it is almost certainly a phishing
attempt.

NEVER give out your username / password in response to any

messages of any kind!

10.5.5 Pharming

'Pharming' is similar to phishing, but instead of deceiving you (as

phishing does), a pharming attack deceives your computer.

In a pharming attack, when you type in a completely genuine URL

(e.g. for your online banking website), your computer is tricked into
The e-mail looks very convincing. It even has the bank's logo. And it displaying a fake website (often a very accurate copy).
sounds urgent and scary... someone has tried to take money from our
bank account! What should we do?! Then, when you try to login to the fake website, your username /
password are recorded and used to take money from your real bank
This is exactly the scare tactic that phishers use to make people panic. account.

If you were to click the link, you would be taken to a fake bank It is very difficult to spot pharming attacks, because to the user
website. Then if you were to enter your login details, these would be everything seems to be normal.
recorded by the phishers and used to empty your real bank account. The name 'pharming' is a mix of the terms 'phishing' and 'farming'.
The name 'phishing' comes from the fact that 'bait' (in the form of
tempting e-mails) is used to put victims into a trap, just like a Whereas phishing requires 'bait', pharming doesn't!
fisherman uses bait to catch fish.
Certain settings in your computer may be altered when your computer
is infected with malware.
('Ph' instead of 'F' at the start of a word is common in computer
hacker jargon)

Phishing does not involve any hacking of a person's computer - it is a

deception that tricks people into revealing secrets such as passwords.

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 from genuine messages, or 'ham') our e-mail systems would be
unusable.

10.5.6 E-Mail Spam

'Spam' is the name given to unsolicited e-mails (ones sent without

being asked for).

Spam e-mails usually contain adverts for products...

Spam is a huge problem. It is estimated that 97% of all e-mail

messages sent is spam. That's several hundred billion spam e-mails
every day!

If it wasn't for e-mail spam filters (which separate out spam messages
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11.0 MALWARE AND COMPUTER VIRUS

Malware and Viruses

11.1What is Malware?

Malware is short for malicious software.

Malware is the name given to any software that could harm a

computer system, interfere with a user's data, or make the computer
performactions without the owner's knowledge or permission.

Basically malware is software that you really don't want to have on

your computer! Some examples of malware:

People can end up with malware installed on their computer system in  Spyware (spys on you)
a variety of ways:  Adware (pops up adverts all the time)
 Root kits (allows a hacker full access to your computer)
 Installing software that seems ok, but has malware hidden
inside (know as a 'Trojan Horse'). Ironically, one of the most infamous bits of spyware around is called
 Having their computer hacked, and the software installed by
Antivirus XP 2008/9.
the hacker.
 Visiting dodgy websites and clicking on infected links
 The computer being infected by a computer virus This software is advertised as a genuine anti-virus product (for free
too!), but if you install it, you've actually installed some malware.
(Read more here)

The software will 'scan' your computer, then tell you that your
computer is infected. You'll then be bullied with endless pop-ups into
paying a fee to have your computer 'disinfected'.

In fact the only infection you really have is the fake anti-virus!

It is estimated that the creators of this malware have made millions of

dollars from innocent, gullible computer users.

74
It's best to assume that if software is given away for free, there is  Don’t trust cracked versions of software from file-sharing
probably something dodgy about it - Use Google to check any sites (often these have viruses and other malware added to
software out before downloading and installing them - a Trojan horse)

11.2.0 What is a Computer Virus?

A computer virus is a piece of software that can 'infect' a computer

(install itself) and copy itself to other computers, without the users
knowledge or permission.

Most computer viruses come with some kind of 'payload' - the

malware that does something to your computer.

For example, the virus might install some spyware (software that
watches what you do with your computer), it might search your
computer for credit card information, or it might install software
that gives someone remote control of your computer (turning it into a
'zombie').

11.2.1 How Can a Computer Be Protected from Viruses?

11.3.0 What is Software Copyright?
There are some simple things you can do to help prevent a virus
infecting your computer:
When someone creates an original piece of software, that person then
holds something called the copyright for that software. (This is also
 Install anti-virus software and keep it up-to-date (this is the
true when people create books, films and songs.)
most important thing you can do!)
 Install anti-malware software (stops software installing
Holding the copyright for software means that you have the
without your knowledge)
protection of the law if anyone tries to steal your software.
 Never download and install software from the Internet
unless you are certain it is from a source you can trust
Under copyright law, people must not:
 Don’t open e-mail attachments unless you have scanned
them (even a file that seems to be a picture can contain a virus)
 Copy the software for other people
 Don’t click links in websites that seem suspicious (if a site is
 Lend the software to other people
offering prizes / free stuff / etc. be suspicious!)
 Rent the software to other people
 If someone gives you a memory stick or CD-ROM, run a
 Install the software on a network when other users can access
virus scan on it before opening any files.
it (unless it is a special ‘network’ version)

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If someone breaks the copyright, they can be punished by fines or
even by imprisonment.

The reason for this is that creating software can involve the work of
many people and may take thousands of hours. It is only fair that all of
this effort is protected
Illegally copying software is often referred to as software piracy.

If you make a copy of a game for a friend, get the latest version of
Windows from a dodgy shop, or ‘borrow’ some software from work,
you are probably breaking the law.

For example, a team of 120 people put in over 1 million person-hours

of work to create the game Halo 3. The development of the game took
over three years.

That’s a huge amount of time and effort, and the company that created
the game ought to be paid for their work. Paying a few dollars for a
game that took so much effort to create actually seems like pretty
good value!

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12.0 Effect of ICT on Patterns of Employment Companies once had large departments full of people whose job it was
to do calculations (e.g. profit, loss, billing, etc.)
The personal computer (PC) was developed in the early 1980s. Before
this date, computers were huge, expensive machines that only a few, A personal computer running a spreadsheet can now do the same
large businesses owned. Now PCs are found on almost every desk in work.
every office, all over the world.
12.1.4 Newspaper Printing
Because companies now have access to so much cheap, reliable
It used to take a team of highly skilledprinters to typeset (layout) a
computing power, they have changed the way they are organised and
newspaper page and to then print thousands of newspapers.
the way they operate. As a result, many people’s jobs have changed...

12.1.0 Areas of Increased Unemployment The same task can now be performed far more quickly using
Some jobs have been lost as a result of computers being used to do the computers with DTP software and computer-controlled printing
same work that people used to do. presses.
Some examples of areas have suffered job losses:

12.1.1 Manufacturing

Many factories now have fully automated production lines. Instead

of using people to build things, computer-controlled robots are used.

Robots can run day and night, never needing a break, and don’t need
to be paid! (Although the robots cost a lot to purchase, in the long-
term the factory saves money.)

12.1.2 Secretarial Work

Offices used to employee many secretaries to produce the documents

required for the business to run.

Now people have personal computers, they tend to type and print
their own documents.

12.1.3 Accounting Clerks

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12.2.0 Areas of Increased Employment 12.2.4 Help-Desk Staff
Although many employment areas have suffered job losses, other
areas have grown and jobs have been created. People often need help using computers, and software applications.

Sometimes people who have lost their old job have been able to re- Computer and software company have help-desks staffed by trained
train and get a new job in one of these growth areas. operators who can give advice.

Some examples of areas where jobs have been created:

12.2.1 IT Technicians

All of the computers in a business need to be maintained: hardware

fixed, software installed, etc.

IT technicians do this work.

12.2.2 Computer Programmers

All of the software that is now used by businesses has to be created

by computer programmers.

Hundreds of thousands of people are now employed in the 'software

industry'

12.2.3 Web Designers

Much of modern business is conducted on-line, and company

websites are very important.

Company websites need to be designed and built which is the role of

web designers.

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APPENDICES

13. Computers in Workplaces Communicating Ideas

As you have seen above, many jobs have changed over the past 30
years. But overall, is this a good thing, or a bad thing? It depends who Why Use IT to Help Communicate Information?
you ask of course - If someone has lost their job because the work is
We often have ideas or information that we wish to communicate with
now being done by a computer, that person will probably see it as a
others, either personally, or as part of our work.
bad thing!
Examples of personal communication: You may want to tell your
But, on the whole, the computerisation of repetitive, menial tasks friends about a party that you are having, or you may want to let
(such as working on a factory production line, or calculating endless others know how about the impact of climate change.
financial results) has freed people to do more pleasant, less
dangerous jobs. Examples of business communication: In business, you may want to
tell the world about a new product that your company has just created
(this is called marketing), or you have information that you need to
There are downsides though. Many people can now access their office pass on to all of the employees in the business.
network from home via The Internet. This means they can work from
home (remote working) which sounds pretty nice. However it often In all of these examples, IT can be used to help pass on the message.
results in people working longer hours and missing out on home life.

Producing and Editing Pictures

The production of graphics and pictures has been revolutionised by

the use of IT. Image editors such as PhotoShop allow computer users
to easily manipulate images in many ways:
Microprocessor-Controlled Devices in the Home

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  Crop (cut off bits that you don't want) It used to be the case that to produce images and graphics for posters
 Resize or magazine, would take highly trained artists many hours.
 Distort (e.g. bend, twist, stretch, etc.)
 Alter colour (e.g. brighten, make black & white, etc.) Photos would be taken using old film cameras, the pictures would be
 Add effects (e.g. shadows, glow, texture) printed onto paper. Effects could be applied during the printing by
 Add graphics (e.g. lines, circles, borders, etc.) using clever darkroom techniques, but this took a lot of skill.
 Add text
 Etc.

High quality hard-copies can be obtained using colour laser printers or After printing the photos could then be edited by actually
ink-jet printers. cutting/pasting with glue and scissors, or by adding lines, colour, etc.
using paint, etc.

There was no 'undo'!

Today, with image editors like PhotoShop, anyone can produce and
edit images. A user at home can do in seconds what would have taken
a professional editor many hours to do.

The tiny coloured dots that make up a digital image are called pixels.

You make have heard this term in connection with digital cameras. A
typical camera takes a 12 megapixel image, which means the image is
made up of 12 million tiny dots!

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Desktop Publishing Text in frames can 'overflow' into other frames. Images can be added
from scanners or digital cameras, then cropped, rotated, resized, etc.
Desktop Publishing (DTP) is a system of software and hardware that Where text and images overlap, text can be 'wrapped' around images.
allows a user to create and print documents such as:

 books
 posters
 flyers
 magazine
 newspapers
 etc...

DTP software is WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get -

meaning that the document looks the same on the screen as it will
when it's printed).

Document layout is produced using 'frames' - areas of the page that The mid-1980s saw the first affordable DTP systems, using DTP
can contain text or images. software running on the newly available GUI PCs, and printing using
some of the first laser printers.

Before DTP was available, if you wanted to produce a printed

document, you would have to pay a professional designer and printer
to do the work for you. And, unless you planned to print thousands of
copies of your document, the price was often too expensive.

Now, with relatively cheap DTP software and a good quality laser
printer, it is easy for anyone to produce their own posters, etc.

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  You need a computer (expensive)
People can now publish documents literally from their own desktop!  You need an Internet connection (not always available, and it
can be expensive)
Website Design  You need some training to know how to use a computer (you
don't need training to use paper!)
A website is a collection of web 'pages' that provide a mixtures of
content: The World Wide Web has transformed information communication.
For many people, most of the information that they consume each day
 Text comes via the Web, rather than as printed documents.
 Images
 Animations Websites use many of the techniques that printed documents have used
 Video for hundreds of years: headings, columns of text, etc.
 Audio
 Hyperlinks (to jump to other content) However, the fact that modern websites can contain interactive,
animated content makes them very different to printed documents.

The original Web when it was invented back in 1991 was a very
different place to totday. At that time webpages were very basic with
just text and a few pictures. (The Internet then was far too slow to
stream video or audio.)

Below is the very first webpage ever created...

Websites are a fantastic way to communicate with people since

websites can be accessed by literally millions of people.

However in some ways websites are not as good as printed documents Multimedia Design
for reaching people. Fore example, to view websites:

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'Multimedia' refers to documents / software applications that contain a
mixture of:

 text
 images
 animations
 video
 audio

Multimedia applications are commonly used for training / education.

Compared to learning from a textbook, multimedia applications allow
students to see animations, videos, etc. This can bring a subject to life
and make it much easier to learn. The modern Web has become a multimedia experience, with
streaming video, streaming audio, animations, etc.

Creating Music

In the same way the it is now very easy to create printed documents
using IT, it has also become easier to create and edit music with the
help of computers.

To produce a musical score (sheets of written notes), you no longer

need to write every note down by hand. You can use a WYSIWYG
editor to write the music on the computer, edit it, print copies, etc.

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 It is possible to play music into a computer and the notes will be
recorded - note as sound, but as digital music data.

Your analogue music is converted into digital data using an analogue-

to-digital convertor (ADC).

Once you have music data in a computer you can use the computer to
play back the music (converting the digital data back into sound with A computer can be used to control musical instruments (or it can be
an ADC). You can add effects to the music, simulate thousands of controlled by instruments) using a system called Musical Instrument
different instruments, add new 'tracks' of music over the top, etc. Digital Interface (MIDI).

Most musical keyboards have MIDI connections, as do many electric

guitars.

Interactive Communication

Communication does not need to be one-way as it is in many of the

above examples. When people create images, documents, music, etc.
they are communicating their message, but they are not listening to
the responses that other may have.

With the rise of the Internet, and especially with the recent 'Web 2.0'
websites, such as wikis, blogs and social networking sites,
communication has now become very interactive.

By 'interactive' we mean that people can respond the information that

they are given, add comments, alter / improve it, rate it, etc.

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  stored / moved - a memory stick is much smaller than a
To read more about these recent developments, see the Internet cupboard full of paper!
Developments page.

Computerised databases can help organise even the most

disorganised person!

What Might You Store on a Computer?

Your Address Book

Most people need to keep track of lots of telephone numbers, postal
Handling Data addresses, e-mail address, etc.

Why Use Computers to Keep Records? We can use a computer (don't forget your phone is a computer too!) to
help keep this data organised in an address database.
Even if you don't work for a huge business, It can be useful to use
computers to keep track of data. A typical computerised address book might store:

Data that is stored on a computer (as opposed to data written on  Name

paper) can be easily:  Address
 Phone number (home)
 organised / sorted in different ways  Phone number (mobile)
 displayed / printed in a variety of styles and layouts  Phone number (work)
 searched for specific things  E-mail address
 updated - adding / changing / deleting items  Birthday
 backed-up - a copy can be made with just a few clicks  Photograph
 Etc.
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Most address book applications have features that help you organise A few years ago, before we had PCs and mobile phones to tore this
the records so that you can quickly access the ones you want: information in, most people would have used a little address book.

 Place your entries into groups (e.g. 'Family', Friends', 'Work', However, this type of book was easy to lose (no back-up), a pain to
etc.) update (you have to cross out names, tear out pages, etc.) and slow to
 Search (by name, groups, address, etc.) search through.
 Synchronisation with other devices (computer, phone, PDA,
etc.)

An electronic address book is much easier to keep up to date!

Club / Society Records

Clubs / societies need to keep track of their members. A membership
database allows the club / society to easily contact members, check
that they have paid any fees, etc.

A typical computerised membership database might store:

 Membership number
 Name
 Address
 Phone number
 Fees to charge
 Have fees been paid (Y/N)
 Etc.

86
If a letter needs to be sent to every member of the club / society, the If this was your football club, you'd want to know a few facts about
names and addresses of the members can be taken from the your club members. Using a computer to keep hold of their details is
membership database and automatically placed onto a letter. This is much easier than using paper.
called a mail-merge.

A mail-merge is a very easy way to automatically create lots of letters

that seem to be personally written for each person, but in fact are all
the same letter, just with the name and address changed.

Results of Surveys
Many groups / organisations undertake surveys to try to discover what
people like / want / think.

Surveys can be performed using paper questionnaires, and then the

results entered into the computer by:

 Typing data in
 Scanning the paper forms, using OMR technology

Alternatively, results can be entered into the computer directly, using

an on-screen form (e.g. if using a tablet PC)
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The survey results are best stored on a computer so that they can A typical sales spreadsheet might contain the following columns:
easily be analysed. Survey results on a computer allow:
 Item code
 Data to be quickly and easily queried (filtered)  Item description
 Charts to be easily created  Item cost
 Summary reports to be created  Number sold
 Total cost
 Profit made

Sales Records for a Tuck Shop

It's important, when selling things, and dealing with cash, to keep
track of the numbers involved.

A computer spreadsheet is an good way to record which items you

have sold, and also to perform calculations on the data (calculate
totals, averages, etc.).

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  Name
 Tutor group
 Grades for Term 1
 Attendance for Term 1
 Comments by teachers for Term 1
 Grades for Term 2
 Etc.

Most database programs allow data to be presented in attractively

design reports that can include headers and footers, school logos, etc.

(For a full discussion of school databases, see the School

Management Systems page)

Doing calculations manually can lead to mistakes. When money is

involved, it's best to let a computer do the work!

School Reports
A school would typically keep data on student academic
performance in a computerised database. This would allow the
school to easily track how students were doing as the year progressed,
as well as making the creation of printed reports very easy (compared
to hand writing every report)
You might think that your report is written just for you, but often this
is not entirely true...
A typical school report database might contain:
Many school reporting systems allow teachers to select pre-written
 Student ID comments from a 'comment bank'. So those 'personal' comments on
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your report are actually from a database - they were just the
comments that best matched you!

School Library Database

Even a small library, such as the one in a school, needs to keep track
of which books are available, and who has borrowed any of them.

A typical school library system would store the following information:

Books

 ID number
 Title
 Author
 Publisher
 Fiction? (Y/N)
 Genre
(For a more detailed description of library databases, see the Library
Loans Systems page)

 Book ID
 Borrower ID
 Date borrowed
 Returned? (Y/N)

Borrowers

 ID number
 Name
 Class
 Date of birth
 Fines to pay

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 Weather stations
Often these are placed in very remote areas to collect data about
rainfall, temperature, wind-speed, wind-direction, etc. Data needs
to be gathered all day, every day. This data can then be used by
weather forecasters to help predict the weather over the coming days.

Environmental monitoring
Scientists are very concerned about the effect that humans are having
on the environment. Computer-based data-logging is often used to
help gather evidence of these effects: the level of water in a dam, the
Before the use of computers, libraries used drawers full of little cards speedof water flowing down a river, the amount of pollution in the
to keep track of library books. The system was hard to mange, and air, etc.
cards could easily get lost or mixed up.
Why Use Computers to Measure Things?
Measuring Things
The main reasons that you would want to use a computer-based data-
How Can Computers Measure Things? logging system, instead of a person taking measurements are...

A sensor, such as a temperature sensor, can be connected to a  Computers do not need to take breaks - they can log data all
computer. The computer can then monitor the signal from the sensor, day, every day, without stopping
reacting to changes, or it can record the data from the sensor at  Computers take much more accurate readings than humans
predefined time intervals. can
 Computers can take data readings more frequently (1000s of
Note: If the sensor is an analogue one then an analogue-to-digital times a second if necessary)
convertor (ADC) will be required.  Since the logged data is already in a computer, the data can be
analysed more quickly and easily (graphs drawn instantly,
Where is Computer Measurement Used? etc.)
 Data logging systems can operate in difficult environments
Anywhere that data needs to be gathered regularly, a computerised (e.g. in the Arctic, or on top of a mountain)
data-logging system can be used. Some examples are shown below…  People are free to do other more useful tasks (rather than
watching a thermometer)
Scientific experiments
Many experiments can be set-up and left to run with a data-logging
system measuring things like the temperature of a liquid, etc.

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Turtle Graphics

One system designed to teach students the basics of computer

programming and control, is called ‘Turtle’ Graphics.

A ‘turtle’ is an on-screen object that follows command given to it by

the user. As the turtle moves around the screen it drags a ‘pen’ that
leaves a trail behind it.

The command language is called ‘LOGO’. LOGO has many

commands, but the ones most commonly used are:

FORWARD n Move forwards n steps

BACKWARD n Move backwards n steps
LEFT n Turn left n degrees
RIGHT n Turn right n degrees

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 PENUP Lift the 'pen' up from the 'paper'
Drop the 'pen' down onto the
PENDOWN
'paper'
REPEAT n
Repeat the commands between
. . .
these twno commands n times
END REPEAT

Using these commands, any number of shapes and patterns can be

This is the story about how the on-screen cursor came to be called a
‘turtle’…

When the LOGO language was first developed, home computers did
not have graphical displays – all they could show on the screen was
text.

So, instead of an on-screen cursor that moved, the computer was

connected to a small buggy which had motors and a pen inside. The
computer could turn the motors on or off and so make the buggy
move.

The buggy had a plastic dome on top that made it look a bit like a
tortoise (or, as Americans would call it, a ‘turtle’)

Controlling Real-World Things

You are here

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How Can Computers Control Things? Computer-controlled systems work in a similar way – the system
detects what is happening in the world around it, processes this
A computer control system, like any system, is made up of three information, and then acts upon what it has detected.
parts...
Sensors

A normal PC has no way of knowing what is happening in the real

world around it. It doesn’t know if it is light or dark, hot or cold, quiet
or noisy. How do we know what is happening around us? We use our
eyes, our ears, our mouth, our nose and our skin - our senses.

A normal PC has no senses, but we can give it some: We can connect

sensors to it...

A sensor is a device that converts a real-world property (e.g.

temperature) into data that a computer can process.

Examples of sensors and the properties they detect are...

1. Input devices called sensors feed data into the computer Sensor What it Detects
2. The computer then processes the input data (by following a set
of instructions) Temperature Temperature
3. As a result of the processing, the computer can turn on or
Light Light / dark
offoutput devices called actuators.
Pressure Pressure (e.g. someone standing on it)
The best way to understand how a computer can control things is to
Moisture Dampness / dryness
think about how a person controls something...
Water-level How full / empty a container is
For example, how does a human control a car when he/she is driving?
Movement Movement nearby
The person looks ahead at the road to see what is approaching, thinks Proximity How close / far something is
about what he/she has seen, then acts upon it (turns the steering wheel
Switch or button If something is touching / pressing it
and/or presses the pedals).
Note: many sensors are analogue devices and so need to be connected
In other words the person reacts to what is happening in the world to the computer using an analogue-to-digital convertor.
around them.

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Actuators

A normal PC has no way of affecting what is happening around it. It

can’t turn on the lights, or make the room hotter. How do we change
what is happening around us? We use our muscles to move things,
press things, lift things, etc. (and we can also make sound using our
voice).

A normal PC has no muscles, but we can give it some. In fact we can

give it the ability to do lots of things by connecting a range of
actuators to it…

An actuator is a device, controlled by a computer, that can affect the

real-world.

Examples of actuators, and what they can do are...

Actuator What it Can Do

Light bulb or LED Creates light
Heater Increases temperature
Cooling Unit Decreases temperature
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 Motor Spins things around
Pump Pushes water / air through pipes
Buzzer / Bell / Siren Creates noise
Note: some of these devices require an analogue signal to operate
them. This means that they need to be connected to the computer using
a digital-to-analogue convertor.

Making Decisions (The Process)

The steps followed by the computer in a control system are just about
the same for all systems...

1. Check the data from the sensors

2. If necessary, turn on/off one or more of the actuators
3. Go back to step 1

That’s it! Of course the details vary, but that is basically how things
work.

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 However using computers to manage these systems has brought many
benefits...

Where is Computer Control Used?

Many of the devices that we use in our everyday lives are controlled
by small computers...

 Washing machines
 Air-conditioning systems
 Programmable microwave ovens

If we look beyond our homes, we come across even more systems that Why Use Computers to Control Thing?
operate automatically under the control of a computer...
It is often far better to have a system that is managed and controlled
 Modern cars have engines, brakes, etc. that are managed and by a computer rather a human because...
controlled by a computer
 Most factory production lines are computer-controlled,  Computers never need breaks - they can control a system
manufacturing products with little or no human input without stopping, all day, every day
 Traffic lights are switched on and off according to programs  Computers don’t need to be paid. To buy and install a
running on computers which manage traffic flow through computerised control system can be very expensive, but, in the
cities long-term, money is saved by not having to employee staff to
do the work
Of course, car engines, factories and traffic lights were not always  Computers can operate in conditions that would be very
computer-controlled. Before microprocessors even existed, car hazardous to human health, e.g. nuclear power stations,
engines ran, factories produced goods and traffic lights changed. chemical factories, paint-spraying areas

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  Computers can control systems far more accurately, and 1. Check light sensor
respond to changes far more quickly than a human could o If it is dark, turn on the lights
o If it is not dark, turn off the lights
2. Check temperature sensor
o If it is too cold, turn on heater and use motor to close
window
o If it is too warm, turn off heater and use motor to
open window
3. Check the moisture sensor
o If soil is too dry, turn on the water pump
o If soil is too wet, turn off the water pump
4. Go back to step 1 and repeat

An Example Control System - An Automated Greenhouse

A computer-controlled greenhouse might have a number of sensors

and actuators:

 A light sensor to detect how much light the plants are getting
 A temperature sensor to see how cold/hot the greenhouse is
 A moisture sensor to se how wet/dry the soil is
 Lights to illuminate the plants if it gets too dark
 A heater to warm up the greenhouse if it gets too cold
 A water pump for the watering system
 A motor to open the window if it gets too warm inside

The process for this system would be...

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 Batch Processing
Note that if you have to describe a control process, never say that
anything like: Sometimes we have a lot of data to process and it is all of a similar
form (e.g. we might have to calculate the pay for 10,000 employees -
“the temperature sensor switches on the heater” the calculations we have to do for each employee are very similar)

This is totally wrong! In cases like this, we can prepare the data into a set or 'batch' and
hand it over to the computer to be processed in one go. Once we have
Sensors cannot control anything - all they can do is pass data to the prepared the batch of data, no user input is required - the computer
computer. works its way through the data automatically.

The computer takes the actions and turns on/off the actuators. This type of data processing is known as batch processing.

An advantage of this type of system is that the processing can occur

when the computer is not being used for anything else (e.g. at night).
Modes of Computer Use The job is setup, people go home, and when they return the next
morning the work has been done.
You are used to using a personal computer by sitting down in front of
it, and interacting with it directly (opening files, running applications, Typical application where batch-processing can be used:
etc.)
 Payroll processing
However not every computer is a personal computer. Some computers  Processing bank cheques
are huge and are shared by many users. Some computers are  Printing of bank statements
embedded in systems that control things such as factories, or aircraft.  Updating of a stock database
And businesses often use computers in totally different ways to you...

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  Any type of monitoring system (e.g. hospital patient
monitoring)
 Any type of computer control system (e.g an automatic
production line, an aircraft auto-pilot, the system controlling a
nuclear power station, etc.)
 Payment systems (e.g. EFPOS and ATM cash withdrawal)
 All booking systems (e.g. flight booking, cinema seat booking,
etc.)
 Computer games (e.g. FPS, driving games, etc.)

Real-Time Processing

Sometime we need to process data immediately - we cannot wait and

process it later (e.g. using batch processing)

For example, if we want to book a seat on a flight, the booking must

be processed immediately. We can't put it in a pile and do it later,
because other people might be trying to book the same seat!

If an item of input data must be processed immediately, and the

result is ready before the next input data is accepted, this is known
as a real-time system.

Typical application where real-time processing must be used:

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 (Click the '+' next to any topic to expand it)

Communication Systems

Good communication is essential to every organisation:

communication between organisations, and communication between
parts of a single organisation (e.g. between offices in different
countries).

A wide variety of communication systems are used...

Before the Internet, most business communication was via telephone,
fax, telex (a way of sending text messages that printed out on a
printer), or by using mail - the old-fashioned paper version!

On-Line Processing E-Mail

An on-line system is one where the user is directly interacting with E-mail is a system that allows messages to be sent and received by
the computer - the user is 'on-line' with the computer. computers. E-mail is the most common form of electronic
communication.
So, any system where the user is entering data directly into the
computer must be an on-line system. If data is being entered and then E-mail messages are text-based, but other types of file can also be
processed, it's an on-line processing system. sent as ‘attachments’.

Examples of on-line processing systems: E-mails that are received wait in a user's inbox until the user is ready
to read them. (Unlike a telephone call, the user is free to ignore e-
 All booking systems (e.g. flight booking, cinema seat booking, mails until they have time to deal with them.)
etc.)
 Computer games (e.g. FPS, driving games, etc.) An e-mail message usually has the following parts:
To send and receive e-mail, you need to have an e-mail address.
Nowadays we tend to use the term 'on-line' to mean connected to the
Internet.
An address is made up of two parts: a username and an e-mail
provider, with an '@' symbol in the middle:
However, historically, the term means that the user is connected to the
computer. When a person wanted to use one of the old multi-user,
username@provider
mainframe computers, they would have to connect their terminal -
taking it 'on-line'
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 The address(es) of the person who the message is
To
for
A short sentance describing what the message is
Subject
about
The text of the message. This can be as long as you
Message
like
An e-mail may also include the following parts:

The address(es) of people to copy the e-mail to

CC
(Carbon Copy)
The address(es) of people to copy the e-mail to
BCC
without anyone else knowing (Blind Carbon Copy)
Files linked to the message (images, documents,
Attachments
etc.)

Video Conferencing

Video-conferencing is a system that allows people to have

conversations and meetings with other people in different locations,
but without leaving their office.

A video-conference involves people sitting in front of a camera and a

microphone, whilst watching other people of a screen and listening
to them through loudspeakers.

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Note: The camera is usually TV quality - much better than a standard
webcam.

The system uses the following hardware:

Mobile Telephones
 Video camera
 Monitor Mobile telephones allow people to be away from their workplace, yet
 Microphone still be contactable. This means that people can still work, even when
 Loudspeakers out of the office.
 High-speed network / Internet connection
Modern smart-phones can perform a wide variety of tasks:
Video conferencing is very popular with businesses as it means:
 Make and receive telephone calls just about anywhere
 No travel costs  Send a receive SMS (short message service) messages
 No time wasted travelling to other cities / countries  Send and receive e-mail
 Can organise meetings at short notice  Send and receive files such as images, text documents, etc.
 Edit documents
However there are some problems with video conferencing:  Most people would be lost without their mobile phone!

 Less personal than face-to-face meetings However there are some downsides to the use of mobiles:
 Documents (e.g. contracts) cannot be signed
 Workers never get a chance to 'switch off' since they can
always be contacted - can be stressful

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  Mobiles are easy to lose, and often contain a lot of personal 'VOIP' means Voice Over IP, where IP means Internet Protocol - the
and/or business information. A lost mobile could be system that the Internet uses to transfer all data
embarrassing / damaging if the wrong people got hold of it

VOIP systems can work in several ways:

 VOIP software can be installed on a computer. Calls are then

made using a headset (headphones / microphone) or by using
a special USB handset (looks just like a normal phone)
 Special VOIP telephones can be plugged directly into the
network (or can connect wirelessly using WiFi)
Internet Telephony / Voice Over IP (VOIP) VOIP systems have a number of advantages over a normal telephone
system:
Internet telephony, or 'VOIP', is becoming very popular both for
personal use, and within the workplace.  No telephone line is required
 Call costs are very low, especially for long-distance calls
Instead of using the normal telephone network (designed to carry  Can include video
voices using analogue signals), VOIP systems send voices through the
Internet as digital data, just like any other Internet data (e.g. e-mails, They also have some disadvantages:
files, webpages, etc.)
 Require special hardware and an Internet connection
In other words, VOIP systems use your Internet connection to send  Not as reliable as normal phones, so cannot be relied upon for
and receive phone calls. emergency calls (911, or 999)
'Internet Telephony' means a telephone system that uses the Internet  Call quality depends on the speed of the Internet connection

The most well-known public VOIP service is Skype, but there are
others such as Google Talk, Vbuzzer, Fring, ooVoo, and SightSpeed.
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 A fax machine is a device that can send a copy of a paper document
(Needless to say, the traditional phone companies don't like VOIP as it over the telephone network.
takes away their business!)
 The sending fax converts the light/dark areas of the printed
document into noises.
 These noises travel through the phone system and are received
by another fax machine.
 The receiving fax machine converts the noises into printed
marks on a piece of paper - making a copy of the original
document.

Faxes are:

 Low quality - images are especially poor

 Slow to send (compared to e-mail)

Faxes have been used for many years as a quick way of sharing
documents. However, now most people have access to a computer, e-
mail attachments are more commonly used.

One reason that faxes are still used is that most businesses would
accept a document such as a contract that had been signed, and sent
by fax. (Electronically signing e-mail attachments is not yet
widespread.)

Fax

Fax is short for ‘facsimile’ which means ‘copy’.

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  Image editing
 Desktop publishing
 Multimedia editing
 Website design

However the type of document produced for businesses and

organisations is often quite different to the sort that you might create
at home...

Corporate Identity

Businesses and organisations usually develop a corporate 'identity' -

an image that they use for all documents, websites, etc.

A corporate identity might consist of:

 A logo to be used on documents, e-mails, website, etc.

 Set of colours / themes
 Set of fonts to be used for all documents
 A jingle (short tune) for TV / radio advertising
 A mascot / character to represent the organisation

Every communication the business or organisation has with the

public, or with other organisations, will use the corporate identity.
This makes the organisation or business very recognisable.

Publicity & Corporate Image

Businesses and organisations use computers and software applications

to publicise ideas / products / people / etc.

The techniques used are the same as those described in the

Communicating Ideas page of this site:

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 Letterheads
Business Cards
A letterhead is a header / footer used for printed documents such as
Business cards are used by people who want to give their contact letters.
details to someone else.
Letterheads usually contain details such as the organisation's name,
A business card has a person's name, telephone number, e-mail address, telephone number, website, etc.
address, etc. pre-printed on it so nothing needs to be written down.
Often organisations will order boxes of paper with the letterhead pre-
Business cards use the logo / font / colour / style of the corporate printed on it. This paper can then be used in printers, or for hand-
identity so that the person receiving the card recognises it written letters.
immediately.
Letterheads use the logo / font / colour / style of the corporate identity
so that the person receiving the document recognises it immediately.

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Flyers Brochures

A flyer is a small, single sheet, printed document used to advertise an Printed brochures are designed and produced to give details of an
event, a product or an idea. organisation / product / event.

Flyers are often handed out to the public to raise awareness of the Brochures normally consist of several pages, combining text, images
event / product / idea. and other graphical elements. Glossy card may be used for brochure
covers to give a more 'quality' feel.
Information such as date, time, location, contact details, etc. are
placed on the flyer for people to refer to later. Brochures use the logo / font / colour / style of the corporate identity
so that the person receiving the document recognises it immediately.
Flyers use the logo / font / colour / style of the corporate identity so
that the person receiving the document recognises it immediately.

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What is an Expert System?

An expert system is computer software that attempts to act like a

human expert on a particular subject area.

Expert systems are often used to advise non-experts in situations

where a human expert in unavailable (for example it may be too
expensive to employ a human expert, or it might be a difficult to reach
location).

How Do Expert Systems Work?

An expert system is made up of three parts:

 A user interface - This is the system that allows a non-expert

user to query (question) the expert system, and to receive
advice. The user-interface is designed to be a simple to use as
possible.
 A knowledge base - This is a collection of facts and rules.
The knowledge base is created from information provided by
The non-expert user queries the expert system. This is done by
human experts
 An inference engine - This acts rather like a search engine, asking a question, or by answering questions asked by the expert
examining the knowledge base for information that matches system.
the user's query
The inference engine uses the query to search the knowledge base
and then provides an answer or some advice to the user.

109
Where Are Expert Systems Used?  Can't easily adapt to new circumstances (e.g. if they are
presented with totally unexpected data, they are unable to
Medical diagnosis (the knowledge base would contain medical process it)
information, the symptoms of the patient would be used as the query,  Can be difficult to use (if the non-expert user makes mistakes
and the advice would be a diagnose of the patient’s illness) when using the system, the resulting advice could be very
wrong)
Playing strategy games like chess against a computer (the knowledge  They have no 'common sense' (a human user tends to notice
base would contain strategies and moves, the player's moves would be obvious errors, whereas a computer wouldn't)
used as the query, and the output would be the computer's 'expert'
moves)

Providing financial advice - whether to invest in a business, etc. (the

knowledge base would contain data about the performance of
financial markets and businesses in the past)

Helping to identify items such as plants / animals / rocks / etc. (the

knowledge base would contain characteristics of every item, the
details of an unknown item would be used as the query, and the advice
would be a likely identification)

Helping to discover locations to drill for water / oil (the knowledge

base would contain characteristics of likely rock formations where oil
/ water could be found, the details of a particular location would be
used as the query, and the advice would be the likelihood of finding You can try a demonstration of a car fault diagnosis system on-line
oil / water there) here.

Helping to diagnose car engine problems (like medical diagnosis,

but for cars!)

Can Expert Systems Make Mistakes?

Human experts make mistakes all the time (people forget things, etc.)
so you might imagine that a computer-based expert system would be
much better to have around.

However expert systems can some problems:

110
The Scottish health service has a self-diagnosis expert system you can
try on-line here.

What is an Expert System?

An expert system is computer software that attempts to act like a

human expert on a particular subject area.

Expert systems are often used to advise non-experts in situations

where a human expert in unavailable (for example it may be too
expensive to employ a human expert, or it might be a difficult to reach
location).

How Do Expert Systems Work?

An expert system is made up of three parts:

 A user interface - This is the system that allows a non-expert

user to query (question) the expert system, and to receive
advice. The user-interface is designed to be a simple to use as
possible.
 A knowledge base - This is a collection of facts and rules.
The knowledge base is created from information provided by
human experts
 An inference engine - This acts rather like a search engine,
examining the knowledge base for information that matches
the user's query

The non-expert user queries the expert system. This is done by

asking a question, or by answering questions asked by the expert
system.

The inference engine uses the query to search the knowledge base
and then provides an answer or some advice to the user.

111
Where Are Expert Systems Used?  Can't easily adapt to new circumstances (e.g. if they are
presented with totally unexpected data, they are unable to
Medical diagnosis (the knowledge base would contain medical process it)
information, the symptoms of the patient would be used as the query,  Can be difficult to use (if the non-expert user makes mistakes
and the advice would be a diagnose of the patient’s illness) when using the system, the resulting advice could be very
wrong)
Playing strategy games like chess against a computer (the knowledge  They have no 'common sense' (a human user tends to notice
base would contain strategies and moves, the player's moves would be obvious errors, whereas a computer wouldn't)
used as the query, and the output would be the computer's 'expert'
moves)

Providing financial advice - whether to invest in a business, etc. (the

knowledge base would contain data about the performance of
financial markets and businesses in the past)

Helping to identify items such as plants / animals / rocks / etc. (the

knowledge base would contain characteristics of every item, the
details of an unknown item would be used as the query, and the advice
would be a likely identification)

Helping to discover locations to drill for water / oil (the knowledge

base would contain characteristics of likely rock formations where oil
/ water could be found, the details of a particular location would be
used as the query, and the advice would be the likelihood of finding You can try a demonstration of a car fault diagnosis system on-line
oil / water there) here.

Helping to diagnose car engine problems (like medical diagnosis,

but for cars!)

Can Expert Systems Make Mistakes?

Human experts make mistakes all the time (people forget things, etc.)
so you might imagine that a computer-based expert system would be
much better to have around.

However expert systems can some problems:

112
The Scottish health service has a self-diagnosis expert system you can
try on-line here.
Computer-controlled manufacturing has revolutionised the way
products are made. Modern factories are full of robots; everything is
automated.

In a modern factory the only people you will see are a few engineers
who are responsible for keeping the robots and other machinery
running smoothly.

This is very different to old factories, where everything was done

manually by human workers.

What is an Industrial Robot?

When you think of the word 'robot', you might picture a human-
shaped robot with arms, legs and a head - the sort you see in sci-fi
films. However this is not how the sort of robots used in factories
look.

Robots used in factories are called industrial robots, and they come
in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

The most common type of industrial robot looks a little bit like a
human arm. The robot has joints (like our shoulder, elbow, and
wrist) and some sort of manipulator / device on the end of the arm
(where our hand would be).

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The robot's joints are powered by very strong electric motors. These
motors are controlled by a computer.

The robot's manipulator / device depends upon the job that the robot
has to do. It could be:

 a gripper (like a hand, for picking things up)

 suction pads (for lifting sheet metal or glass)
A scene from an old factory - no robots in sight! This type of manual
 a paint spray gun (for painting things)
labour is repetitive and boring.
 a welding gun (for joining metal together)

How Are Robots Used in a Factory?

Robots in factories are used to:

 lift heavy items into from place to place

 assemble parts together to create things
 join parts together using glue, or by welding (melting metal)
 paint things

Robots often work in groups, one robot holding a part, whilst another
robot does something to it.

Watching robots work is fascinating - they move so quickly and

confidently, that it seems almost like a choreographed dance!
In a new factory, the same tasks are performed by robots
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 Spray painting things (a hazardous job for a human - most paint is
toxic)
Watching robots work is fascinating - they move so quickly and
confidently, that it seems almost like a choreographed dance!

Here are some videos of robots at work:

 Industrial robots: how they're made and what they do

 Examples of industrial robots at work
 Two robot arms picking objects off a conveyor
 Huge robot arm handling sheets of glass
 Line of robots welding Toyota car bodies
 Demo of a huge robot arm lifting car bodies
 Mini Cooper cars built by robots Welding metals parts together (needs skill and accuracy)
 Robots building computer power supplies
 Robots stacking trays of food
 Robots packing and stacking games

115
 In the case of factory production lines the control system consists of:

Sensors

Sensors (inputs to the computer) detect what is happening on the

production line, and send data to the computer so that it can decide
what to do.

Examples of sensors would be:

 Switches / buttons - detect if something is touching them

 Pressure sensors - detect if something is pressing down on
Stacking boxes for shipping (tedious and hard for a human to do all them
 Light sensors - detect if something is present (blocks the light)
day)
 Temperature sensors - detect if items are hot/cool enough
 Liquid level sensors - detect how much liquid is in a container
How Do Computers Control Robots and Production Lines?
 Cameras - detect the shape / colour of objects
The basics of computer control are explained in the Controlling Real-
World Things section.

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Process

The control software running on the computer is the process. It takes

the data from the sensors, checks if anything needs to be done, then
turns on/off various actuators to make things happen.

For example, in a soft-drink factory, the production line involves

filling bottles with fluid (drink!)

1. The computer would make sure that a bottle was in place

(using data from a pressure sensor, a light sensor, or a
camera) and then turn on the fluid control valve.
2. The data from a fluid level sensor would be checked to see if
the bottle was full. When it was full, the computer would turn
off the fluid control valve.
3. These steps would then be repeated for the next bottle, and so
on.

In a typical production line, there will be hundreds of sensors and

dozens of actuators, all connected to computers (often a large network Actuators
of computers)
Actuators (outputs form the computer) are the devices that make
things happen on the production line: robots picking things up,
conveyor belts moving, etc.
117
  Robots are extremely accurate compared to humans, so
Examples of actuators would be: product quality is high
 Robots can perform tasks more quickly than humans, so more
 Motors - used to make almost everything move, from the products can be made
joints of robot arms, to the motion of conveyor belts.  Factories with robots don't need to be heated or even have the
 Valves - to turn on/off the flow of paint, etc. lights on, and they don't need food (so lower day-to-day
 Relays (electrically operated switches) - turn on/off devices costs)
like welders  Robots can work in very dangerous / unhealthy conditions
(e.g. with dangerous chemicals)
 Robots don't get bored / hate their job!

There are some downsides to the use of robots in factories:

 Robots are cannot easily adapt to unusual conditions like a

human can (e.g. if an item on the line is not in the correct
place, a human worker would notice and correct it)
 People are made unemployed because robots are doing their
jobs (however some new jobs are created - looking after the
robots - and some employees can be retrained)
 People are deskilled (this means that, because the robots are
doing the complex, skilled tasks that the people used to do, the
people are left doing simple, boring jobs)
Why Use Computer-Controlled Robots?  The robots are very expensive, and it can take several years to
pay for them (paying with the savings made by not paying any
The robots used in factories are very expensive. Many of the larger wages)
ones can cost as much as $500,000. And some factories have dozens
of robots. Some people get very upset when you talk about robots in factories -
they see the robots 'stealing' peoples' jobs.
So why would a factory owner spend so much money on these
It is true that many jobs have been replaced by robotic production
expensive machines?
lines, but these jobs were often incredibly boring, repetitive, and often
in dangerous conditions.
There are a number of reasons that robots are used:
Some of the people who lost their jobs have been retrained to work
 Robots can work 24 hours a day, every day, with no breaks with the robots - maintaining them so they run smoothly.
 Robots don't need to be paid a wage (so money is saved)

118
As long as alternative work can be found for people, you could argue 1. Bank B gives her the cash
that robots have improved the lives of people overall, since nobody 2. Bank B now is owed money by Bank A
has to perform those tedious and dangerous jobs anymore. 3. Bank B sends an EFT instruction to Bank A asking for
money to be transferred from the customer’s account to Bank
B.
4. Bank B has now been paid back

Working alongside the robots

Using Cash Machines (ATMs)

ATMs can be used to for a range of banking services...

 Withdrawing cash
 Depositing money
 Checking the balance of accounts
 Transferring money between accounts
 Paying bills

A customer identifies him/herself and their bank account by using a

bank card. The card is inserted into the ATM where it is read by a
magnetic strip reader or a smart card reader. The customer also
types a secret PIN into the ATM's numeric keypad to confirm that
they are the real owner of the card

ATMs can be used by customers of other banks as the ATM can use
EFT...

If a customer of Bank A uses her debit card to withdraw cash from an Electronic Payments for Goods (EFTPOS)
ATM belonging to Bank B:
119
Banks allow goods to be paid for electronically, using a system called  A method of producing a receipt for purchases - usually a
Electronic Fund Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). small dot-matrix printer

A full description of EFTPOS can be found here.

What is a Point-of-Sale?

The Point-of-Sale (POS) in a store is the place that you pay for your
purchases. It is usually where the till (cash register) is located.

A typical POS will have...

 A method of inputting the codes of goods purchased - usually Handling Electronic Payments (EFTPOS)
a bar-code scanner. The codes are then used to find more
information about the goods, such as price, from a database When you use a bank card to pay for a purchase in a store, the
 A system to accept electronic payments - EFTPOS (see payment is made using a system called Electronic Fund Transfer at
below) Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS).
 A system to update the stock-level of goods whenever they
are sold, and possibly to automatically re-order goods that This is how it works…
have low stock-levels (see below)

120
The EFT in EFTPOS is the same Electronic Fund Transfer system
discussed here.

1
Customer gives the bank card to the cashier

4
The bank computer uses the account number to access the
customer’s record and checks the balance

2
The cashier runs the card through a card reader (the customer may
have to enter a PIN). The cashier enters the value of the purchase

5
The bank computer sends back a confirmation or rejection message to
the store’s system

3
The store’s system then connects to the bank computer and sends a
message

6
The cashier now confirms the purchase and an EFT message is sent
to the bank

121
 stored inside.

Smart cards are more secure (since the data is encrypted) and more
reliable than magnetic strip cards.

When a customer wishes to pay for goods in a store, the customer

inserts the bankcard into a smart card reader, and then types in a
PIN to confirm that they are the true owner of the card. Once the PIN
7 is verified, the customer can remove the card.
The bank computer subtracts $100 from the customer’s account and One of the reasons this system has proven popular is the extra level of
adds $100 to the store’s account security it provides for users: At no time does the bankcard need to
be handled by anyone other than the card owner, so with this
system there is less chance of the card being stolen or copied.

The nickname for the tiny memory device inside the bankcard is a
‘chip’, and the system uses a PIN as identity proof, so the system is
nicknamed ‘Chip and PIN’ in the UK.

8
The cashier gives the card back to the customer along with a receipt

'Chip & PIN' Payment System PIN stands for Personal Identification Number.

Most bankcards no longer rely on a magnetic strip to store customer A PIN is usually a four digit secret code used to confirm a person’s
account details. Instead the cards are smart cards. The cards contain a identity (e.g. when withdrawing cash from an ATM)
small amount of computer memory with the account information

122
Note: You should not say ‘PIN number’ since that would mean 3
‘Personal ID Number number’!
If the stock-level falls below a pre-set value, the stock-control system
sends an order to the suppliers
Automatic Re-Ordering of Stock

In many stores, the POS system is linked to the stock control

system...
'Stock' means the things that you have in your store / warehouse.

'Stock Control' is the system that keeps track of what you have in
stock
4
The suppliers send a delivery to the store.
1
When goods are sold, the POSsystem send the details of the sale to
the stock-control system

5
The stock-control system updates the stock-levels in the stock
2 database for the delivered goods
The stock-control system updates the stock-levels in the stock
database for the purchased goods

Internet Shopping (e-Commerce)

123
In the last few years, Internet shopping has become very popular.
Stores like Amazon and the iTunes Store are some of the largest retail
businesses in the world. Online you can buy anything from air flights
to fresh eggs.

Customers like Internet shopping because...

 The convenience of being able to browse goods from your

home
 Stores are open 24 hours a day, every day of the year
 The wider range of choice - can access stores all over the
world
 Easy if you have limited mobility (due to a disability, or old
age)
 Goods are often cheaper than in stores
 Payment is simple using credit cards or services such as
PayPal

Businesses like Internet shopping because...

 Lower costs since no expensive retail stores and less staff

 Lower costs = lower selling prices = higher sales = bigger
profits
 Many more potential customers

However there are some problems too...

 You cannot try items before purchasing (e.g. clothes)

 You may have to wait several days before receiving your
goods
 Returning goods or getting help can be difficult
 There is a security risk using credit cards online. The card
details may be stolen and used to commit fraud. Library Systems

Libraries often contain many thousands of books, magazines, CD-

ROMs, etc. In fact, some of the largest libraries (e.g. The British
Library in the UK) contain well over 100 million items - that's a lot of
124
things to keep track of!

For this reason, libraries use computer-based systems to keep a record

of their books, and of the people who borrow the books.

A computerised library database allows for:

 Quick and easy searching for books

 Easy printing out of book lists / labels
 Easy tracking of book loans (who has it, when it was
borrowed, etc.)
 Automatic printing of warning letters for borrowers who have
not returned books

It's important to note that a book's ISBNcannot be used as the

primary key field in a library's book database.

Why? Because if you have several copies of the same book, they will
all have the same ISBN. And the primary key must be unique.
International Standard Book Number (ISBN)
For this reason, library books are given a uniqueID number / code.
Every published book has an International Standard Book Number
(ISBN). The Book Database
The ISBN is typically printed on the back of the book in numeric A typical library book database might contain:
form, and as a barcode (to allow for quick data entry)
 Book ID (number / text)
 Title (text)
125
 Author (text)
 Publisher (text)
 ISBN (number)
 Fiction / non-fiction (boolean)
 Genre / category (text)
 Cost (number)
 Date of purchase (date)

Before computers, libraries had to use manual paper-based systems.

Details of books were recorded on small cards which were then kept
in small drawers (in order of author's name, for fiction books, or in
order of subject, for non-fiction books)

You can probably imagine that keeping these cards up-to-date, and
making sure non got lost, or put back in the wrong place, was a huge
job!

The Borrower Database

A typical library borowwer database might contain:

 Borrower ID (number / text)

 Name (text)
 Phone number (text)
 Address (text)
 E-mail address (text)
 Date of birth (date)

Borrowers are commonly given library cards that have their details
printed on, so that they don't have to remember their ID.

126
Most cards also have the borrower's ID in the form of a barcode for The loans database has records added to it when someone borrows a
quick and easy data input when borrowing books book. The loans database links together records from the books
database and the borrower database.

A typical loans database would contain:

 Book ID (number / text)

 Borrower ID (number / text)
 Date of loan (date)
 Due date (date)

The loans database can be regularly checked for loans that are late
back. The computer simply has to search the database for records
where:

Due date is before Today

When a late record is found, the borrower ID can be used to link to the
borrower's record. The borrower's address / e-mail can then be used to
send out an automatic reminder letter.

The Loans Database

127
As with the manual book catalogue mentioned above, before
computers all loans were recorded using a paper-based, manual
system

128
Contents 3.0 NPUT DEVICES .......................................................................... 11
1.0 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ............................................................... 1 3.1 Alphanumeric Keyboard ............................................................. 11
1.1 What is Hardware?........................................................................... 1 3.2 Numeric Keypad........................................................................... 11
1.2 What is Software? ............................................................................ 1 3.3 PIN Pad ......................................................................................... 11
1.3 The Difference Between Hardware and Software ........................... 1 3.4 Mouse ............................................................................................ 12
1.4........................................................................................................... 1 3.5 Touchpad / Trackpad .................................................................. 12
Main Computer Components ................................................................ 1 3.6Trackball / Tracker Ball ............................................................... 12
(a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)........................................................... 1 3.6 Touch Screen ................................................................................ 13
(b) Main Memory ................................................................................... 2 3.7 Graphics Tablet ............................................................................ 13
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) .................................................. 2 3.7 Joystick / Joypad .......................................................................... 14
(ii) Read-Only Memory (ROM) ......................................................... 3 3.8 Light Pen ....................................................................................... 15
1.5.0 Peripheral Devices..................................................................... 3 3.9 Scanner .......................................................................................... 15
1.5.1What Are Input Devices? ........................................................... 3 3.10 Digital Camera ........................................................................... 16
1.5.2 What Are Output Devices? ....................................................... 3 3.11 Video Camera ............................................................................. 16
1.5.3 What is Secondary / Backing Storage? ..................................... 4 3.12 Web Cam .................................................................................... 16
1.6 What is an Operating System? ......................................................... 4 3.13 Microphone ................................................................................. 17
1.7 User Interface....................................................................................... 5 13.14 Magnetic Strip Reader ............................................................. 18
1.7.1 Graphical User Interface (GUI) ...................................................... 5 3.15 Smart Card / 'Chip' Reader ...................................................... 18
1.7.2 Command Line Interface (CLI) ................................................. 6 3.16 MICR Reader ............................................................................. 19
2.0 TYPES OF COMPUTERS ......................................................................... 7 13.17 OMR Scanner ........................................................................... 19
2.1 Mainframe Computer .................................................................... 7 13.18 OCR Scanner ............................................................................ 20
2.2 Personal Computer (PC) ............................................................... 7 3.19 Barcode Reader / Scanner ......................................................... 21
2.3 Laptop Computer ........................................................................... 8 4.0 OUTPUT DEVICES .................................................................... 22
2.4 Palmtop Computer ......................................................................... 9 4.1 CRT Monitor ................................................................................ 22
3.5 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) .................................................. 9 4.2 Flat-Screen Monitor (TFT or LCD) ........................................... 22

129
 4.3 Digital / Multimedia Projector .................................................... 22 Blu-Ray ............................................................................................ 37
4.5 Loudspeaker ................................................................................. 23 HD DVD .......................................................................................... 37
Printing / Plotting ..................................................................................... 24 Recordable Optical Discs ...................................................................... 38
4.6 Dot Matrix Printer ....................................................................... 24 CD-R and DVD-R ............................................................................ 38
4.7 InkJet Printer ............................................................................... 26 CD-RW and DVD-RW .................................................................... 38
4.8 Laser Printer ................................................................................ 27 DVD-RAM ....................................................................................... 38
Plotter .................................................................................................. 27 'Solid-State'?......................................................................................... 39
5.1 Main Memory ............................................................................... 29 Flash Memory .................................................................................. 39
Backing Storage.................................................................................. 29 USB Memory Sticks .............................................................................. 39
Serial / Sequential Access .................................................................. 31 Memory Cards ...................................................................................... 40
Direct / Random Access ..................................................................... 31 Smart Cards .......................................................................................... 41
Why Magnetic? .................................................................................... 32 What is a Backup? ............................................................................. 41
Hard Drives ........................................................................................... 32 Why Backup Your Data? .................................................................. 41
Fixed Hard Drive ............................................................................. 33 How Are Backups Created? .............................................................. 42
Portable Hard Drive ......................................................................... 33 5.1 Motor ............................................................................................. 43
Magnetic Tape...................................................................................... 34 5.2 Pumps ............................................................................................ 43
Removeable Media Magnetic Discs ..................................................... 34 5.3 Buzzer ............................................................................................ 44
Floppy Disc ...................................................................................... 34 4.5 Lights ............................................................................................. 44
Zip Disc ............................................................................................ 34 5.6 Heaters / Coolers .......................................................................... 44
Jaz Disc ............................................................................................ 35 6.0 COMPUTER HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES ..................... 45
Why 'Optical'? ...................................................................................... 35 Eye-Strain ........................................................................................... 45
Read-Only Optical Discs ....................................................................... 36 Back and Neck Ache .......................................................................... 46
CD-ROM .......................................................................................... 36 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and Hands ...................... 47
DVD-ROM....................................................................................... 36 Safety Issues with ICT ............................................................................... 48
High Capacity Optical Discs .................................................................. 37

130
You wouldn't imagine that using computers could be dangerous, but there Physical Security .............................................................................. 62
are a few situations that can result in accidents... .................................. 48 Use a Username and Have a Good Password .................................. 62
Hacking and Hackers ................................................................................ 64 Always Install and Use a Firewall.................................................... 62
What is Hacking? ............................................................................... 64 Securing Your Data ............................................................................... 62
Why Do Hackers Hack? .................................................................... 64 Data Encryption ............................................................................... 63
Can a Computer be Protected from Hacking? ................................ 64 What Can We Use the Internet For?................................................ 66
Clients.................................................................................................. 51 What is World Wide Web? ............................................................... 66
Servers ................................................................................................. 51 Blogs and Blogging ............................................................................. 66
Local Area Network (LAN) ............................................................... 51 Wikis.................................................................................................... 67
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) ........................................... 52 Media Uploading Sites ....................................................................... 68
Wide Area Network (WAN) .............................................................. 52 Social Networks .................................................................................. 68
Bluetooth (Personal Area Network) ................................................. 53 Internet Use Issues .......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bus Network ....................................................................................... 54 The Effects of Using ICT................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ring Network...................................................................................... 54 Internet Use Issues ................................................................................... 69
Star Network ...................................................................................... 54 Reliability of Information .................................................................. 69
Hybrid Network ................................................................................. 55 Undesirable Information ................................................................... 70
Network Interface Card (NIC) ......................................................... 55 Security of Data Transferred Using the Internet ............................ 70
Network Cable .................................................................................... 56 Phishing ............................................................................................... 71
Hub ...................................................................................................... 56 Pharming............................................................................................. 72
Switch .................................................................................................. 57 E-Mail Spam ....................................................................................... 73
Router.................................................................................................. 57 7.0 COMPUTER VIRUS .............................................................................. 74
Bridge .................................................................................................. 58 Malware and Viruses................................................................................ 74
Firewall ............................................................................................... 59 What is Malware? .............................................................................. 74
Modem................................................................................................. 60 So, What is a Computer Virus? ........................................................ 75
Preventing Unauthorised Access ......................................................... 62 How Can a Computer Be Protected from Viruses? ........................ 75

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 What is Software Copyright?............................................................ 75 Where is Computer Measurement Used? ........................................... 91
6.0 Effect of ICT on Patterns of Employment ........................................... 77 Scientific experiments ...................................................................... 91
Areas of Increased Unemployment .................................................. 77 Weather stations ............................................................................... 91
Areas of Increased Employment ...................................................... 78 Environmental monitoring ............................................................... 91
10. Computers in Workplaces ......................................................... 79 Why Use Computers to Measure Things?............................................ 91
Microprocessor-Controlled Devices in the Home ................................ 79 Turtle Graphics .................................................................................. 92
Communicating Ideas............................................................................... 79 Controlling Real-World Things ................................................................. 93
Why Use IT to Help Communicate Information? ........................... 79 How Can Computers Control Things?............................................. 94
Producing and Editing Pictures ........................................................ 79 Sensors................................................................................................. 94
Desktop Publishing ............................................................................ 81 Actuators ............................................................................................. 95
Website Design ................................................................................... 82 Making Decisions (The Process) ....................................................... 96
Multimedia Design ............................................................................. 82 Where is Computer Control Used? .................................................. 97
Creating Music ................................................................................... 83 Why Use Computers to Control Thing? .......................................... 97
Interactive Communication............................................................... 84 An Example Control System - An Automated Greenhouse ........... 98
Handling Data ........................................................................................... 85 Modes of Computer Use .......................................................................... 99
Why Use Computers to Keep Records? ............................................... 85 Batch Processing ................................................................................ 99
What Might You Store on a Computer?............................................... 85 Real-Time Processing....................................................................... 100
Your Address Book .......................................................................... 85 On-Line Processing .......................................................................... 101
Club / Society Records ..................................................................... 86 Communication Systems ........................................................................ 101
Results of Surveys ............................................................................ 87 E-Mail................................................................................................ 101
Sales Records for a Tuck Shop ........................................................ 88 Video Conferencing.......................................................................... 102
School Reports ................................................................................. 89 Mobile Telephones ........................................................................... 103
School Library Database .................................................................. 90 Internet Telephony / Voice Over IP (VOIP) .................................. 104
Measuring Things ..................................................................................... 91 Fax ..................................................................................................... 105
How Can Computers Measure Things? ................................................ 91 Publicity & Corporate Image .................................................................. 106

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Corporate Identity ........................................................................... 106 Automatic Re-Ordering of Stock .................................................... 123
Business Cards.................................................................................. 107 Internet Shopping (e-Commerce) ................................................... 123
Letterheads ....................................................................................... 107 Library Systems ...................................................................................... 124
Flyers ................................................................................................. 108 International Standard Book Number (ISBN) .............................. 125
Brochures .......................................................................................... 108 The Book Database .......................................................................... 125
What is an Expert System? ............................................................. 109 The Borrower Database ................................................................... 126
How Do Expert Systems Work? ..................................................... 109 The Loans Database ......................................................................... 127
Where Are Expert Systems Used? .................................................. 110
Can Expert Systems Make Mistakes? ............................................ 110
What is an Expert System? ............................................................. 111
How Do Expert Systems Work? ..................................................... 111
Where Are Expert Systems Used? .................................................. 112
Can Expert Systems Make Mistakes? ............................................ 112
What is an Industrial Robot?.............................................................. 113
How Are Robots Used in a Factory? ................................................... 114
How Do Computers Control Robots and Production Lines? .............. 116
Sensors ........................................................................................... 116
Process ........................................................................................... 117
Actuators ........................................................................................ 117
Why Use Computer-Controlled Robots?............................................ 118
Using Cash Machines (ATMs) ........................................................ 119
Electronic Payments for Goods (EFTPOS) ................................... 119
What is a Point-of-Sale? .................................................................. 120
Handling Electronic Payments (EFTPOS) .................................... 120
'Chip & PIN' Payment System........................................................ 122

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