LEARNING THEORIES

Learning theories are frameworks that explain how individuals acquire, process, and retain
knowledge and skills. They provide insights into how people learn and can inform educational
practices, training programs, and therapeutic interventions. Classical conditioning theory, operant
conditioning and cognitive social learning theories will be discussed in this lecture.

Classical conditioning theory: is a type of learning process first described by the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1840-1936). It involves creating an association between a naturally
occurring stimulus and a previously neutral stimulus.

Basic Components

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): This is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
without prior learning. For example, the smell of food (US) naturally triggers salivation.

Unconditioned Response (UR): This is the automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus. In the
example above, salivation in response to the smell of food is the UR.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is initially a neutral stimulus that, after being paired repeatedly with
the unconditioned stimulus, begins to trigger a response on its own. For instance, a bell sound (CS)
paired with the smell of food.

Conditioned Response (CR): This is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. After
conditioning, the sound of the bell alone (now a CS) triggers salivation (CR).

The Conditioning Process

Before Conditioning:

US → UR (Food → Salivation)

CS → No Response (Bell → No Salivation)

During Conditioning:

CS + US → UR (Bell + Food → Salivation)

After Conditioning:

CS → CR (Bell → Salivation)

Applications and Examples

Pavlov’s Dogs: Pavlov’s famous experiment involved ringing a bell before presenting food to dogs.
Eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone.

Emotional Responses: Classical conditioning can also explain emotional responses. For example, if a
person experiences something traumatic while hearing a particular song, they might later feel
anxious or distressed when hearing that song again.

Application of the theory in Nursing to be discussed in the class.

Skinner’s operant conditioning theory proposed that behaviour is influenced by its consequences.
Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on reflexive responses to stimuli, operant conditioning
deals with voluntary behaviours and the ways they are influenced by reinforcement and
punishment.

Reinforcement: Reinforcement is any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being
repeated. Skinner distinguished between two types of reinforcement as follows;

Positive Reinforcement: Involves presenting a rewarding stimulus after a desired behaviour, making
it more likely that the behaviour will be repeated. For example, giving a child praise or a treat for
completing their homework.

Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing an unwanted stimulus after a desired behaviour occurs,
thereby increasing the likelihood of the behaviours being repeated. For example, turning off an
annoying alarm when a person gets out of bed.

Punishment: Punishment aims to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Skinner
identified two types of punishment;

Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired behaviour to decrease its
occurrence. For example, giving extra chores to a child for misbehaving.

Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus following an undesired behaviour to decrease

Schedules of Reinforcement: Skinner discovered that the timing and frequency of reinforcement
affect the strength and persistence of behaviours. This can be subdivided in to;

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired behaviour every time it occurs. This schedule is
effective for teaching new behaviours but may lead to quicker extinction when reinforcement stops.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behaviour only some of the time.

Cognitive Social Learning Theory by Bandura (1925 to 2021)

Cognitive Social Learning Theory, also known as Social Cognitive Theory, was developed by Albert
Bandura. It emphasizes the interplay between cognitive processes and social influences in learning.
It emphasizes that people can learn new behaviours and acquire new information simply by
observing others.

Observational Learning (Modeling): Bandura proposed that individuals can learn behaviours by
observing others, rather than through direct experience alone. This process is also known as
modeling or imitation. Key Processes involves;

Attention: To learn from a model, the observer must pay attention to the model’s behaviour.

Retention: The observer must be able to remember features of the behaviour after observing it.

Reproduction: The observer must be capable of reproducing the behaviour they have seen.

Motivation: Even if a behaviour is learned, the observer must be motivated to perform it. Motivation
can be influenced by perceived rewards or punishments.
Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching a parent do it. The child needs to pay
attention, remember the steps, and then practice the behaviour.

Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific

Mastery Experiences: Successes increase self-efficacy, while failures can decrease it.

Vicarious Experiences: Observing others succeed can enhance self-efficacy.

Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement and positive feedback from others can boost self-efficacy.

Physiological States: Emotional and physical states can influence perceptions of efficacy.

Example: A student who has successfully completed similar tasks before will feel more confident in
their ability to handle a new challenge.

Reciprocal Determinism: Reciprocal determinism is the idea that personal, behavioural, and
environmental factors all influence each other in a dynamic and reciprocal manner. This concept
highlights the bidirectional nature of influence. Example; A student’s academic performance
(behaviour) can be influenced by their self-efficacy (personal factor) and their classroom
environment (environmental factor). In turn, these factors interact and influence each other.

Reinforcement and Punishment: While Bandura’s theory emphasizes observational learning, it also
acknowledges the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning. This is divided in to Direct
Reinforcement: Receiving rewards or avoiding punishments directly affects behaviour and Vicarious
Reinforcement: Observing someone else receive rewards or punishments can influence an observer’s
likelihood of adopting the same behaviour.

Example: If a child sees a peer rewarded for sharing, the child may be more likely to share in hopes
of receiving similar rewards.

Imitation and Modeling: Imitation is the process of copying observed behaviour, while modeling
involves demonstrating behaviours that can be imitated by others. Bandura stressed that modeling
is crucial for learning new behaviours and skills.