Science G9

Space Exploration
Class 12

Agenda
1. Quiz 12
2. Take up Class 11 HW
3. Lesson 12
• Early View of the Cosmos
• Origins of the Universe
• Distances in Astronomy
• Characteristics of Stars
• The Sun

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Astronomy
• Astronomy is the branch of science that studies
objects beyond Earth
• Universe is everything that exists, including all
energy, matter, and space
Left: Galaxy cluster SMACS
0723 contains thousands of
galaxies. Captured by the
James Webb Space Telescope
using infrared light by NASA.

Right: The edge of a young,

star-forming region called
NGC 3324 in the Carina
Nebula. Captured by the
James Webb Space Telescope
using infrared light by NASA.

Early Views of the Cosmos

• Stonehenge in England (3500
BCE) were believed to be built
to track the summer and
winter solstice
• Mayans of Central America
(1000 AD) built temples to
mark the spring and fall
equinox
On every equinox, the late afternoon sun
creates an illusion of a snake creeping
slowly down the northern staircase of the
Kukulcán Pyramid, in Chichen Itza, Mexico.

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Model of the Solar System
Geocentric Model Heliocentric Model
• Greek philosopher, • 1530, Copernicus
Aristotle (350 BCE) proposed the Sun-
proposed the centred model
Earth-centred • 1600s, Galileo
model used a telescope
• Distant stars to confirm
did not move Copernicus’ model
because they • Kepler discovered
were attached planets revolved
to the around elliptical
outermost orbits, not circles
celestial
sphere

Origins of the Universe

• Big Bang Theory theorizes that all
energy and matter in the universe
expanded from a extremely small,
hot, and dense state
• Universe has expanded and cooled
down significantly over 13.7 billions
years
• Evidence for the Big Bang Theory:
1. The universe is expanding
2. Cosmic microwave background
radiation

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Evidence #1: An Expanding Universe
• Hubble identified that galaxies appeared to be
moving away from each other by studying
patterns of light emitted from galaxies
Doppler Effect is when the frequency
and wavelength changes as the source
moves relative to the observer.

If the source is moving towards the

observer, the wavelengths become
shorter (higher frequency).

If the source is moving away from the

observer, the wavelengths become
longer (lower frequency).

Long wavelength Short wavelength Long wavelength Short wavelength

700 nm 400 nm 700 nm 400 nm

• To detect how a light-emitting object is moving, we

observe how the dark bands in the light spectrum shift
• Shift towards blue end of the spectrum = star is approaching
• Shift towards red end of the spectrum = star is moving away
• The farther away a galaxy is, the faster it moves away
from Earth

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 Checkpoint
Using A as a reference, deduce if B and C are
shifting away or towards the observer.

Evidence #2: Cosmic Microwave Background

Radiation
• Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation is
leftover heat radiation from the Big Bang
• Initially the universe was very hot and all
electromagnetic radiation were gamma rays
• As the Universe cooled and expanded, gamma rays
turned into lower energy electromagnetic radiation
such as microwaves

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 Temperature map of the entire sky.
Red spots = warmer temperatures
Blue spots = cooler temperatures

• Cosmic microwave background (CMB) is detected

fairly uniformly in all directions of the sky
• Fluctuations in the CMB are due to variations in the
density of the universe after the Big Bang
• Regions that are slightly more dense attract more
matter leading to the formation of stars and galaxies

Distances in Astronomy
• Astronomical Unit (AU) is used to
measure distances within our
solar system; represents the 1 AU = 1.5 x 108 km
average distance from the centre
of the Sun to the centre of the
Earth
• Light-year (ly) is used to measure
distances beyond our solar
system; represents the distance 1 ly = 9.46 x 1012 km
that light travels in one year

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 Checkpoint
Proxima Centauri is a small, low-mass star that is
located 4.02 x 1013 km from the sun. It is the nearest
known star to the Sun. Express this distance in
light-years.

Checkpoint
How many kilometres are in 1 light-second (ls)?

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• Parallax is the apparent
change in position of an
object when viewed from
two different locations

If you stick your thumb out against a background

and only view with one eye, the background Parallax is the angle measured between the two lines of sight,
appears to shift when you alternate the opening divided by two. Distance to a star can then be calculated using
and closing of your right and left eye. triangulation and trigonometry.

• We can use triangulation

and trigonometry to figure
h
out the distance to an
object

Law of Sines
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
sin θ = tan θ =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

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 Checkpoint
You are measuring the distance from the shore to a
boat in the distance. The baseline between A and B
is 10m. Angle A is 70° and Angle B is 60°. Find the
distance between the boat and the shore.

• Parsec (pc) is the distance to an

object having a parallax of one
arcsecond as seen from points
separated by 1 AU

1 pc = 3.26 ly = 3.086 x 1013 km

Unit Abbreviation Conversion

Astronomical Unit AU 1 AU = 1.5 x 108 km
Light-year ly 1 ly = 9.46 x 1012 km
Parsec pc 1 pc = 3.26 ly
1 pc = 206 265 AU
1 pc = 3.086 x 1013 km

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 1
𝑑=
tan 𝑝 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝
1𝐴𝑈
tan 𝑝 =
𝑑 Where:
1𝐴𝑈 *Assume tan 𝑝 ≈ 𝑝 since d = distance to the object in parsecs
𝑑=
tan 𝑝 the star is very distant p = parallax angle in arcseconds
1𝐴𝑈
𝑑=
𝑝

Checkpoint
A star has a parallax angle of 0.723” (arcseconds).
What is the distance to the star in parsecs? In light-
years?

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 Objects in Space: Stars
• Star is a massive collection of gases held together
by its own gravity and emitting large amounts of
energy (Nuclear Fusion)
• Characteristics:
• Brightness
• Colour and temperature
• Composition
• Mass

Brightness
• Luminosity is the total amount of
energy produce by a star per second
• Measured relative to the Sun, which
has a luminosity of 1 Sirius has a luminosity of 22, which
• Need to compare luminosity at the means it emits 22 times more energy per
second than the Sun.
same distance
Apparent Absolute
• Apparent magnitude is the brightness Star
Magnitude Magnitude

of the stars as it appears on Earth Sun -26.8 4.83

Sirius -1.45 1.5
• Absolute magnitude is the brightness Vega 0.04 0.5
of the stars if they were all located 10 Betelgeuse 0.41 -5.6

parsecs (32.6 ly) away from Earth Deneb 1.99 -7.5

The smaller the magnitude, the brighter the
celestial object appears to the observer.

Scale from negative numbers to positive numbers

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Colour & Temperature

Colour Temperature Range (°C) Example

Blue 25 000 – 50 000 Zeta Orionis
Bluish-white 11 000 – 25 000 Rigel, Spica
White 7500 – 11 000 Vega, Sirius
Yellow-white 6000 – 7500 Polaris, Procyon
Yellow 5000 – 6000 Sun, Alpha Centauri
Orange 3500 – 5000 Arcturus, Aldebaran
Red 2000 – 3500 Betelgeuse, Antares

Composition
• The chemical composition
of a star can be determined
using a spectrograph
• A spectrograph splits light
into its component
wavelengths
• Each chemical element has
its own spectral signature
• Astronomers can compare
the star’s spectrum with a Light travels from the telescope through a small opening to a

known spectra of elements collimating mirror. The collimating mirror causes all the light rays
to become parallel to one another. These parallel rays then enter
a plate of glass known as a diffraction grating. The diffraction
helps figure out age of star grating causes different wavelengths of light to bend differently.
These wavelengths are then detected using a photodetector.

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 Checkpoint
The observed
spectrum of a distant
star is provided on
the right. Deduce the
elements that make
up the composition
of this star.

Mass
• Solar mass (M☉) is the mass of the Sun; a value
used to describe the masses of galaxies and stars

1 Solar Mass (M☉) = 2 x 1030 kg

Star Solar Mass

OGLE-TR-122b
0.1
(red dwarf)
Sun 1
R136a1 320
Note: The mass of a star does not
always reflect its size.

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Hertzsprung-
Russell Diagram
(H-R Diagram)
• Organizes stars
by their absolute
magnitude and
surface
temperature
• 90% are main
sequence stars
• H-R diagram can
be used to study
the evolution of
stars

The Sun
• The Sun is a star
consisting of hot, glowing
gases
• The Sun is an average star
in but it appears the
biggest and brightest due
to its proximity to Earth
• The Sun rotates on its axis
approximately every 25
days

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 Core – high temperatures of
15 000 000°C and high pressures
causes nuclear fusion of hydrogen
atoms into helium atoms; releases
lots of energy

Radiative Zone – energy from the

core is carried by photons that
bounce around from particle to
particle until it reaches the
convective zone

Convective Zone – area where

hotter substances rise and cooler
substances fall

Photosphere – the granulated surface of the Sun

Corona
(5500°C); where light and energy from the interior
escapes

Chromosphere – inner layer of the Sun’s atmosphere

where temperatures range from 6000°C to 20 000°C
Chromosphere
Corona – outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere where
temperatures reach 500 000°C; white-light crown
surrounding the Sun
Photosphere
Figure A – Sunspots are dark spots on the
surface of the Sun that are cooler than its
surrounding area.

Figure B – Solar flares are gases and charged

particles expelled above an active sunspot.
Convection Zone
Figure C – Solar prominences are low-energy
eruptions that are anchored to the Sun’s
Figure A Figure B Figure C surface.

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The Auroras
• Earth’s magnetic field protects against solar
winds but if the solar winds are strong
enough, it can enter Earth’s magnetic field
• Auroras occur when charged particles like
electrons and protons from solar winds
collide with gases in Earth’s atmosphere
• Aurora borealis are northern lights
• Aurora australis are southern lights

The best time to see the northern

lights is from September through
May after sunset.

What I Learned Today:

❑ Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Model
❑ Red-shift
❑ Astronomical Unit, Light-Year, Parsec
❑ Parallax
❑ Characteristics of Stars
❑ Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram
❑ The Sun

Due next class: Class 12 Homework

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