I

NTRODUCTI
ONTOI
CT
Thi
schaptercov
ersthedefinit
ionoftheconceptsinICT/computersandthehi
stori
cal
dev
elopmentofcomputers.ICTi sanacronym whi
chstandsf orI
nfor
mationand
Communicati
onTechnology.Itisanextendedter
mf orinfor
mat i
onTechnol
ogy(IT)
.
Asadi sci
pli
ne,I
CTcov er
sthestorage,ret
ri
eval
,manipul
ati
on,t
ransmi
ssionand
recei
vi
ngofi nf
ormati
onelectr
onical
lyinadigi
talf
orm.Itisal
sotheappl
icat
ionof
comput er
stostore,
study,r
etr
iev
e, t
ransmitandmanipul
atedataandi
nformati
on.
Acomput
eri
sanelect
roni
cdevi
cethatprocessesdat
aint
oinf
ormat
ionwi
tht
hehel
pof
pr
ogr
amsthatpr
ovi
detherequi
redi
nstr
uctionset.
Thet er
m dataistheplural
ofdatum andr
eferstorawfactsandfi
gurest hathav
enot
beenpr ocessedandtheref
orehavenomeaning.Infor
mation,ont
heot herhand,i
sdat
a
thathasbeenpr ocessedtogi
vethem ameaning.Fordatat ober
efer
redt oas
i
nformat i
on,theymusthavemeaning,bespecif
icandconv eyagi
venmessage.
I
nf or
mat i
oncanal sobeusedasdata.
Aninfor
mat i
onsystem isasetoforgani
zedi
temsusedfort
hecollect
ion, or
gani
zati
on,
stor
ageandcommuni cati
onofinfor
mati
onwhereascommunicat
ionsy stemsarethose
usedforthetr
ansferofinfor
mationand/
ordataf
rom onepl
acetoanot her.
Hi
stor
ical
dev
elopmentofcomput
ers.
Overtheyears,comput er
shavebeenimpr ovedtomaket hem smaller
,fasterandmore
eff
ici
ent.Beginningfrom t
heveryear
lyday swhenourancestorsusedt oresidei
ncaves,
counti
ngwasapr obl
em.Thatiswhent heystar
tedusingcrudeit
emsl i
kest onesand
sti
ckstowhi chlatergaveri
setothefi
rstmechanicalcounti
ngdeviceknownast he
abacus.
Theabacuswasusedar ound500BCandi t
sappli
cati
onwasonlyforcomputati
on,i
.e.
ari
thmeti
coper
ati
ons.Itusedasystem ofsli
dingbeadsf
ast
enedonawi reand
arr
angedonarack.Eachbeadrepresentedeit
herfi
ve(5)
,azer
o( 0)ora(1)dependi
ng
onitsposi
ti
onontherack.
Asnecessit
ydemanded, scient
istsst
artedinvent
ingbett
ercal
culat
ingdevi
ces.Thusin
thepr
ocess,johnNapi erofScotlandi
nvent edacalcul
ati
ngdevi
cehecalledNapier
’s
Bonesinthey ear1617.inthedev i
ce,Napierusedbonerodsforeasyari
thmeti
c.Some
numberswerepr int
edont hesebones.
Anotherdevel
opmentwasi n1632,whenKurtRedandot her
sdev elopedthesliderule.
Thi
swasal i
nearscaleusedt oper f
orm computationandisinfact,sti
ll
inuset oday.
Thenextsignif
icantdevicewasi nvent
edin1642byBl ai
sePascal andwasr eferredto
asthenumer i
cal wheelcalcul
atororPascali
ne.Itwasabr assr
ect angularboxt hathad
ei
ghtmov abledialstosum upv aluesupto8digits.
I
n1801JeanMar
ieJacquar
dinv
ent
edaweav
ingmachi
newhi
chwascont
rol
l
edbya
chainofpunchedcar
ds.Int
hemachine,mult
ipl
erowsofholeswer
epunchedoneach
card,wi
thonecompletecar
dcor
respondingt
ooner owoftheweavi
ngpatt
ern.
Lateron,i
n1822, Char
lesBabbage, anEngl i
shmathemat i
csprofessorinventeda
machi net
hatresemblesthecomput erweknowt oday.Babbageisthereforerefer
redt
o
as‘thefat
herofthemoder ncomput er’.Themachinewhichhecal l
edadi ffer
ence
enginecouldperf
orm dif
ferent
ialequationsandwaspower edbyst eam.In1833, he
developedamor ecompletedesign,theanalyti
calengi
newhi ch,
madeuseoft he
punchedcardsprogrammi ngandast eam engi
neforpower .
In1889anAmer i
cani nventor
,HermanHol l
erit
halsousedpunchedcardsf orst
orage
whi chwerest i
l
l i
nuseupt o1960s.Her manl atersol
dhismachinestoatabulat
ing
companyi n1896t hati snowcal l
edInternati
onal Busi
nessMachines(I
BM) .Theother
i
nv entionbeforereal comput ersi
n1939wast hatoneofthebombewhi chwasan
electromechanical dev i
ce.Thisdevi
ceai dedint hedesi
gnoftheColossus.Thewor l
d’s
fi
rstpr ogr
ammabl e,electroni
cdigi
talcomput er.
Afterallt
heseevent
s,t
hennowcamerealcomput
ersasweknowt hem t
odayandt
hei
r
developmentfrom t
her
ehavebeendi
vi
dedint
odif
fer
entgener
ati
onsaccordi
ngtot
hei
r
features.
Fi
rstGener
ati
onComput
ers(
1945-
1956)
Theserepresentagroupofcomputersdev
elopedduri
ngt
heSecondWorl
dWarand
becamef ul
lyfunct
ional
immediat
elyaft
erthewar.Thi
smarkedt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heuse
ofelect
ri
cit
yasasour ceofpowerforcomputers.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs.
1.Theyusedv
acuum t
ubesast
hei
rbasi
coper
ati
onal
cir
cui
ts.
2.Theyal
sousedmagnet
icdr
um f
ormemor
y.
3.Theywerever
ylar
geinsi
zeandoccupi
edalotofspace.Asingl
ecomput
eri
n
thi
sgener
ati
onoccupi
edasmuchasat wo-
stor
eybuildi
ng.
4.Thesecomput
erswer
ever
ymuchexpensi
vet
ooper
ate.
5. Theyconsumedal
argeamountofpowerwhi
chwaswast
edasheat
.
6.Theyrel
i
edonmachinel
anguagef
ordat
apr
ocessi
ng,
hencecoul
donl
ysol
veone
probl
em atat
ime.
7.I
nputwasdoneusi
ngpunchedcar
dsandpapert
ape.
8.Out
putwasdi
spl
ayedonpr
int
out
s.
9.Maxi
mum memor
ysi
zeofappr
oxi
mat
ely2KBs.
Exampl
es:
 1.UNI
VAC(
Uni
ver
sal
Aut
omat
icComput
er)
2.ENI
AC(El
ect
roni
cNumer
ical
Int
egr
atorandCal
cul
ator
)
3.EDVAC(El
ect
roni
cDi
scr
eteVar
iabl
eAut
omat
icComput
er)
4.Mar
k1.
SecondGener
ati
onComput
ers(
1956-
1964)
Invent
ionofthet r
ansi
storsin1947changedt
hedevel
opmentofcomputer
s.Theuseof
transi
stor
sreplacedthelarge,
cumbersomevacuum t
ubesi
ntel
evisi
on,
radi
oand
comput er
s,butitwasbeingusedincomputer
sin1956.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs.
1.Theyusedt
ransi
stor
sint
hei
rci
rcui
tr
y.
2.St
il
lrel
i
edonpunchedcar
dsf
ori
nputandpr
int
out
sforout
put
.
3.Useofmagnet
ict
apef
ordat
ast
orage.
4.Useofassemblyl
anguagefordat
apr
ocessi
ng.Thi
sal
l
owedpr
ogr
ammer
sto
wri
tei
nstr
ucti
oninwords.
5.Usedmagnet i
ccoresf
ormai
nmemor
y.Theywer
ethef
ir
stcomput
erst
ost
ore
thei
rinst
ruct
ions.
6.Thememor
ysizeexpandedtoaround32KBsandcoul
dpr
ocessbet
ween200
000t
o300000inst
ructi
onspersecond.
Exampleswere:I
BM 140,
IBM 7090,
IBM 709,
Honey
wel
l1800andLARC(
Liv
ermor
e
AdvancedResear
chComputer).
Thi
rdGener
ati
onComput
ers(
1965-
1971)
Thought r
ansistorswerecl
earl
yanimpr ov
ementoverthevacuum tube,t
heysti
ll
generatedalargeamountofheatwhi chdamagedotherpart
softhecomput er
.In1958,
theintegr
atedcircui
t(I
C)wasdeveloped.TheICcombinedsever
al tr
ansi
stor
sinasmall
sil
i
conchi p.Thi
swast hehall
-mar
koft hethi
rdgener
ationcomputers.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs.
1.Theyusedi
ntegr
atedci
rcui
ts(
ICs)
2.I
ntr
oduct
ionoft
hekey
boar
dfordat
ainputandmoni
tor
sforout
put
.
3.Forthefirstti
me, hi
ghlevelpr
ogramminglanguagesFORTRAN( Formula
Translat
ion)andCOBOL( CommonBusi nessOri
entedLanguage)wereused.Thi
s
resul
tedint heint
roducti
onofanOperatingSyst
em (OS)thatpr
ovidedan
i
nterfacebet weentheuserandthecomput er
.
 4.Mul
ti
progr
ammi
ng/mul
ti
processi
ngwasi
ntr
oduced.
5.Newt
ypesofdev
icesl
i
keopt
ical
disksandhar
ddi
skswer
eusedf
ordat
ast
orage.
6.Comput
ermemor yi
ncreasedto2MBandpr
ocessi
ngspeedi
ncr
easedt
o5
mil
l
ioni
nst
ruct
ionspersecond.
7.Mi
nicomput
erswer
eint
roduced
8.Muchsmal
l
ert
hant
hoseoft
hepr
evi
ousgener
ati
ons.
Examples:IBM 360,
Bur
noughsB6500,
PDP-
8,PDP-
11,
CDC6600(
Comput
erDat
a
Corpor
ation)andHoney
well
-115.
Four
thGener
ati
onComput
ers(
1971-
1989)
.
Thei nt
egratedcir
cuitwast henimprov edintermsoft hescal eofi nt
egrati
onofasi li
con
chip.Thousandsofi ntegratedcircui
tswer efit
tedont oasingl esil
iconchipontomakea
microprocessor.Thet echnologieswer elargescaleintegr
at ed(LSI)whereanequiv al
ent
ofthousandsoft ransistor
swer efi
tt
edi ntoasili
conchi p,verylargescaleint
egrated
(VLSI),
anequi v
alentofhundr edsofthousandsoft r
ansistorsf it
tedint
oasi l
iconchi p
andul t
ralar
gescal eintegrati
on( ULSI)wher eanequi val
entofmi l
li
onsoftransist
or s
wer efi
tt
edintoasi l
iconchi p.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs
1.Useoft
hemi
cropr
ocessor
2.I
ntr
oduct
ionoft
hemi
crocomput
erpopul
arl
yknownast
heper
sonal
comput
er(
PC)
3.Useofgr
aphi
caluserinter
face(GUI)f
orinputandoutputwhi
chenabl
edt
heuseof
themouseandotheri
nteract
iveinput
/out
putdevices.
4.Thecomput
ersbegant
obenet
wor
kedt
oshar
eresour
ceandf
orpr
ocessi
ngofdat
a.
5.Opt
ical
disksapar
tfr
om magnet
icdi
skswer
eusedf
ordat
ast
orage.
6.Exampl
es:
IBM 870,
Bur
roughs7700,
Honey
wel
lDPS-
88andMaci
ntosh
Fi
ft
hGener
ati
oncomput
ers(
1990–t
odat
e)
Thecomput
ersi
nthisgener
ati
onar
estil
lunderdevel
opment.Thegoal
ofthi
s
gener
ati
oni
stodevel
opcomputer
sthatareoperat
ional
l
yli
kehumansbeing.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs
1.Useofpar
all
elpr
ocessi
ng.
2.Useofv
oicer
ecogni
ti
onf
ori
nput
3.Theinter
nethasbeenf
ull
ydev
elopedandmanyot
herdev
icesconnect
edt
ofor
mthe
i
nternetoft
hings(I
OT)
 4.Useofdi
str
ibut
edcomput
ersy
stems.
5.Useoff
lashst
oragedev
icesf
ordat
ast
orage.
Ty
pesofcomput
ers
Computer
sexisti
ndiff
erentsizes,wei
ghtsandshapes.Duetothesedi
ff
erences,
computer
sperfor
m di
fferenttypesofj
obs.Thi
sdiff
erenceshav
el edt
oclassi
fi
cati
onof
computer
sint
ocategori
es. Therearet
hreemajorwaysintowhi
chcomput er
scanbe
cl
assi
fi
ed.Theseareaccordingto:
a.Gener
ati
on
b.Funct
ional
i
ty/
technol
ogy
/dat
apr
ocessi
ng
c.Phy
sical
size/
power
d.pur
pose
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofcomput
ersAccor
dingt
oFunct
ional
i
ty
Thisclassif
icationref
erstohowcomputershav
ebeencat egor
izedaccor
dingtotheway
theyprocessdat aandtheki
ndofdataacomputercanprocess.Thi
sformsthebasis
forthebasict ypesofcomputer
s.Accor
dingtofunct
ional
i
tycomputersareclassi
fi
ed
i
ntoanal og,digital
andhybri
dcomputer
s.
Anal
ogcomput
ers
Thesearecomput
ersdesi
gnedt
opr
ocessdat
ainwhi
cht
hev
ari
abl
equant
it
iesv
ary
conti
nuousl
y.
Thesignal
conti
nuousl
yvar
iesorisi
nacont
inuousf
orm suchsi
gnal
sar
ecal
l
ed
anal
ogsignal
sandcanberepresent
edasawave.

Vol
ta
ge

0
Ti
me

Ananal
ogcomput
err
epr
esent
sdat
afi
rstasphy
sical
quant
it
iesandoper
atesont
he
 dat
abymanipulat
ingthequant
it
ies.Theyarether
efor
e,usedt
operf
orm compari
sonby
measur
ingchangesinphysi
calmagnitudesuchaswatt-
hourmet
ersandspeedometer
s.
Di
git
alcomput
ers
Thesecomput ersaredesi
gnedt opr
ocessdat aindiscret
efor
m.Theyar ecur
rent
lyt
he
mostcommonl yusedcomput er
s.Di
gitalsi
gnals,unl
ikeanal
ogsignal
s,donotvar
y
conti
nuouslywithti
me.Theyar edi
screte,t
hatis,t
heirval
ueshav
eonlyt wopossi
ble
stat
es,ei
ther1or0, onoroffandTrueorFal se.

Vol
tag
e

0
Ti
me

Thenumber soperatedonbyadi gi
tal
comput erar
eex pr
essedinbinar
ydigi
ts(bi
ts).A
bi
tisinonlytwovaluesof1and0whi charearepresent
ati
veoftheonandof fst
atesof
anelect
ronicdevi
ce.Theref
ore,all
dataenter
edinadi gi
tal
computerareconvert
ed
aut
omat i
call
ytobitsbyadigit
alcomput er
.
I
nmostcases, t
hestandardusedfordataconver
sioni
stheAmeri
canst
andar
dcodefor
i
nfor
mati
oni nt
erchange(ASCII
)code.Thiscodeenabl
esthecomput
ert
oconver
tany
number
,let
terorsymboltobinarydi
git
s.
Hy
bri
dcomput
ers.
Thesear
ecomput
erst
hathav
ecombi
nedf
eat
uresofdi
git
alandanal
ogcomput
ers.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofcomput
ersaccor
dingt
opur
pose.
Computersherearecategor
izedaccordi
ngtohowt heyar
eputtouse.Computer
scan
beusedforgeneralorspeci
fi
cfuncti
on.Therearethr
eemainty
pesinthiscat
egory
:
Speci
alpurpose,
GeneralPurposeandDedicatedcomputer
s.
Speci
alpur
posecomput
ers.
Thesearecomput ersdesi
gnedtocarr
youtaspecif
icfunct
ion.Theysol
veprobl
emsof
apart
icul
arnature.Thisi
sbecausethesetofi
nstr
ucti
onsthatdriv
ethem i
sli
mitedt
o
onl
ythatfunct
ion.Mostspecialpur
posecomputer
sareembeddedwi t
hint
hegadget
sin
usedai
l
y.
Gener
alpur
posecomput
ers.
Generalpur
posecomputershavebeendesi
gnedt osolv
eawidevari
etyofproblems.
Thesecomput er
scanbeprogrammedandr epr
ogrammedt operf
orm di
ff
erenttasks.
Thei
rflexi
bil
i
tyall
owsthem t
obeusedi nwordprocessi
ng,
accounti
ngandar i
thmeti
c
operat
ionsamongotherappl
icat
ions.
Dedi
cat
edcomput
ers.
Dedicatedcomput
ersaregener
alpur
posecomputer
sthathavebeencommitt
edtoa
specif
icjobort
ask.Theyar
e.However,
capabl
eofperf
ormingavari
etyoft
asks.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofcomput
ersaccor
dingt
ophy
sical
size.
Thisi
sclassi
fi
cati
onofcomputer
saccordingtohowbi gorsmallt
hecomputerar
e
physi
cal
l
y .Her
e,computer
saregroupedi
nt ofourmainty
pes:super
comput
ers,main
fr
amecomput ers,
minicomput
ersandmi crocomputer
s.
Super
comput
ers
Thesearethelar
gest,fastestandmostexpensi v
ecomputersmainl
yusedf or
special
i
zedappli
cati
onst hatrequir
eal otofmathemati
cal
calcul
ati
ons,suchas
weatherfor
ecast
ing,nuclearenergyresearchandpet
rol
eum expl
orati
ons.Speci
fi
c
charact
eri
sti
csofsuper computersare:
i
. Fast
.
i
i
. Lar
ge.
i
i
i. Expensi
ve.
i
v. Power
ful
.
v
. Theyr
equi
recool
i
ngsy
stems.
v
i. Theyusepar
all
elpr
ocessi
ng.
v
ii
. Suppor
tav
ari
etyofper
ipher
als.
Mai
nfr
amecomput
ers.
Thewor dmai nfr
ameisanindustri
alter
mforalargecomput er.Thenamecamef r
om
thefactthatall
unit
sincl
udi
ngpr ocessi
ngandcommuni cati
onwoul dbehungona
frame.Mai nf
ramecomputersaremai nl
yusedtoruncommer cialappl
i
cati
onsin
i
nstit
uti
onssuchasbanks, ai
rl
inesandhospital
s.Thecharacteristi
csofmainf
rame
comput ersare:
i
. Bi
ginsi
ze.
i
i
. Lar
gest
oragecapaci
ty.
i
i
i. Suppor
tav
ari
etyofper
ipher
als.
i
v. Kepti
nai
rcondi
ti
onedr
ooms.
v
. Expensi
ve.
v
i. Usedasser
ver
s.
Themaindi
ff
erencebet
weenamainf
ramecomput erandasupercomput
eristhata
super
comput
erchannel
sal
lit
spowerint
oexecut
ingaf ewpr
ogramsasf astaspossi
ble
whil
ethemai
nframecomput
erusesi
tspowertoex ecut
emanypr ogr
ams.
Mi
nicomput
ers.
Thesearecomput
erst
hatweredevelopedasacheaperal
ter
nat
ivet
omai
nfr
ames.They
suppor
tanumberofconcur
rentuses.
Mi
crocomput
ers.
Thesearecomput ersthatuseamicroprocessorast
hei
rprocessi
nguni
ts.Theyareal
so
cal
ledpersonalcomput er
s(PCs)becausetheyaredesi
gnedforusebyonepersonata
ti
me.Theyar ethesmal l
esti
nsize,cheap,moreener
gyeff
ici
ent,f
ast
erandmor e
rel
iabl
ethattheothercomputers.
Theycanbepl
acedonadesk,
laporthepal
m oft
hehandamongot
herconv
eni
ent
st
ands.Somety
pesofmicr
ocomputersi
ncl
ude:
a.Desktopcomput
ers–t
hecomput
ersdesi
gnedt
obeusedwhi
l
eonadeskor
of
ficetabl
e.
b.Laptop/
Notebookcomputers–Ar epor
tabl
eandcanbeplacedonthelapwhile
bei
ngused.Theylookli
keabriefcaseandhasal
li
nputandoutput,
processi
ng
andmemoryi nsi
dethesyst
em unitl
eavi
ngonlyafewaccessor
iest
obe
connect
edasper i
pher
aldevi
ces.
c.Palmt
opcomputer
s–Designedt
obeusedonthepal
m ofthehandandcanf
iti
n
one’
spocket
.Al
soref
err
edtoasPer
sonal
Digi
tal
Assi
stant(PDA)
.
Emer
gingt
rendsi
nthecomput
erdev
elopment
.
Comput ersystemsareevol
vi
ngallthet
ime.Inf
rast
ructurehasbeenl
aiddownto
encouragetheuseofcomput er
sindevel
opingcountr
ies.Thefol
lowi
ngtr
endsareused
todiscussfuturet
rendsi
ncomputing:
1.Capabi
l
ity
.
Thepr ocessingspeedandst or
agecapaci
tiesar
eincreasi
ngasnew
technologicalinnov
ati
onsarebeingdevel
oped.Moder npr
ocessorshave
mul ti
processingcapabi
li
ti
es.Soli
dStat
eStorageDevices(SSDs)arer
eplaci
ng
opticalandmagnet icdevi
ces.Devi
cesbei
ngdev el
opedarehighlypor
tabl
e
 bet
weendif
fer
entcomputerplat
formsandarepl
ug-
and-
play(PNP).Plug-
and-
pl
aydevi
cesaret
hosethatareautomati
cal
l
ydetect
edandinstal
l
ed,readyfor
usebyt
heoperat
ingsy
stem.
2.Phy
sical
size.
Computersyst
emsarebecomingsmal
leri
nsizeasmi ni
atur
izat
ionand
i
ntegr
ati
onlevel
softechnol
ogyi
mprov
e.Thisreducti
oni
nsizeisnot
compromisi
ngtheperfor
manceoft
hecomputersy st
em.
3.Pr
ice.
Computerstemsarebecomingmoreaf f
ordabl
eascostef
fect
iveproducti
on
methodsarebeingused.Asthecomputersyst
emsbecamemor eaffordabl
e,
morepeopleacquir
ethem andthei
ncreasedvol
umeofsalesf
urtherreducest
he
pr
ices.
4.Sof
twar
e
Thegener
altr
endofsoftwaredesignconcent
ratesondevel
opingsof
twarewher
e
user
sarefr
eedf r
om concer
ningthemselveswit
hhowt hesoft
wareworksand
payi
ngmoreattenti
ontowhatthesoftwarecando.
Rol
eofI
CTi
nabusi
nessenv
ironment
.
1.UseofI
CTi
ncommuni
cat
ion.
ICThasr
ev ol
uti
oni
zedhowcommuni cati
onisdone.Thedev
elopmentof
communicati
ontechnol
ogi
eshasenabl edpeopl
eev eni
nremoteareast
o
communicateeasi
lyandef
fi
cient
ly.
2.Computer
sandrelat
edICTtechnol
ogi
esar
ealsousedasanaidi
nteachi
ngand
l
ear
ningacti
vi
ti
es.Thi
sisref
erredt
oascomputer
-ai
dedl
earni
ng.
3.I
CTisal
soappl
iedt
opr ovi
desecur
it
ybylawenfor
cersthr
ought
heuseofbi
o-
met
ri
cstoanal
yzef
ingerpr
int
sandotherchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
4.I
nfor
mati
onandCommuni
cat
ionTechnol
ogi
escanbeusedf
orent
ert
ainmentt
o
pl
aymusi
candvi
deo.
5.Easyt
ransf
erofmoneyhasbeenenabl
edbytheuseofI
nformati
onand
Communicati
onTechnol
ogyasusedi
nElect
roni
cFundTransf
er(EFT)
.
Rol
eofcomput
ersi
nbusi
ness
Themai
nfunct
ionsorpur
posesofcomput
ersi
nbusi
nessar
easunder
:
a.Tomai
ntai
ncont
rol
ofbusi
nessoper
ati
ons.
b.Topr
ovi
det
her
equi
redi
nfor
mat
ionmor
eef
fi
cient
lyandaccur
atel
y.
Mai
nusesofcomput
eri
nanybusi
nessor
gani
zat
ionar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:
1.Preparat
ionofpay
rol
l:
thecomput
ercal
cul
atesgrosspay,
taxdeduct
ions,
soci
al
contr
ibuti
onsli
keNSSFandaft
ert
hesededuct
ions,i
tdet
erminest
henetpayof
theemployees.
2.Stockcontr
ol-Therecordsoft
hest
ockinrespectofgoodspur
chasedandsol
d
canbemai ntainedbythecomput
er.I
tcanalsopri
ntoutthest
ockli
stwhen
requi
red.
3.RecordsofDebt
ors–Comput er
scanalsomaint
ainr
ecor
dsofdebtors.These
recor
dshelptoensur
ethatdebt
orspayonti
me.Anyover
duedebtorsarepin-
point
edbythecomputer.
4.Budgetarycontr
ols–comput er
scanbeusedt opreparebudgetsandensur
e
properimplementat
ionofbudgets.Thecomputercanalertt
hemanagement
whent heactualper
for
manceoft heorgani
zat
ionvari
esf r
om thepl
anned
program.
5.Producti
oncontrol–Computersareusedt ocontr
olproduct
ionl
evels.I
fduet
o
anyinter
rupt
ions,t
heproducti
onisdi
scontinuedforaspecif
icti
me,there-
scheduli
ngoftheworkbecomesessent i
al.Insuchcases,acomputerwill
hel
p
themanagementmakecor r
ectandti
melydeci si
ons.
 COMPUTERSYSTEM COMPONENTS
Acomput ersyst
em ismadeupofasetofdev
icesthatar
edesi
gnedtorecei
veand
processdata.I
tconsi
stsoft
womajorcomponentsnamelyt
hehardwar
eandt he
softwar
e.
Thehardwareincl
udesallt
hephy si
calandtangi
blepar
tsofacomput erwhi
le
soft
warearetheprogramswi t
hinstr
ucti
onsthatmakethecomputerperfor
mt asks
i
.e.t
ell
sthecomput erwhattodoandhowt odoi t
.Theyarei
ntangi
ble.
Comput
erhar
dwar
e.
Comput
erhar
dwar
econsi
stsoft
hreemaj
orpar
ts:
i
. Apr
ocessor(
CPU)
i
i
. Amemor
ysy
stem.
i
i
i. Ani
nput
/out
putsy
stem.
Thebasi
cor
gani
zat
ionofacomput
ersy
stem

1.Cent
ral
Processi
ngUni
t(CPU)
Thecent
ral
processi
nguni
tisthebrai
nofthecomput
ersincei
tiswher
ethepr
ocessi
ng
ofdat
aoccurs.I
tiscommonlyref
err
edtoasthepr
ocessor.
Computer
sinwhicht
heCPUisimplement
edusi
ngmicropr
ocessorsar
ecal
led
micr
ocomputer
s.Amicr
opr
ocessorismadebycombi
ningaverylar
genumberof
t
ransi
stor
sonasi
ngl
epi
eceofsi
l
iconchi
p.
TheCPUconsistsoft
hreeothercomponent
snamel
y: t
hecont
rol
uni
t(CU)
,Ar
it
hmet
ic
andLogi
cUnit(ALU)andtheint
ernal
memor y(
Regi
ster)
TheCont
rol
Uni
t(CU)
Thecontrol
uniti
sthecenterofoperati
onsforthecomputersyst
em.Itdi
rect
sthe
act
ivi
ti
esofthecomputersy st
em.Thisunitcontr
ols,
superv
isesandover
seesall
the
act
ivi
ti
esofthecomputer.Ital
somoni t
orstheexecuti
onofprogramsandmanagesthe
si
gnalsandthecommandsex changedbetweenthevari
ouscomponentsofthe
computersyst
em.
TheAr
it
hmet
icandl
ogi
cUni
t(ALU)
TheALUuni tcontai
nsal ar
genumberofel ectroni
ccir
cuit
swhi chcar
ryoutav ar
iet
yof
ari
thmeticoperat
ionssuchasaddi ti
on,subtracti
on,mult
ipli
cati
onanddivi
sionandlogi
c
operat
ionsli
kesor t
ing,matchingandcompar i
ng.Ther
efore,theALUismadeupoft wo
secti
ons:theArit
hmet i
csectionandtheLogi csecti
on.
Regi
ster
s.
Thesearefastmemori
esusedt
ohol
ddat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionst
empor
ari
l
ywhi
l
ebei
ng
manipul
atedintheCPU.
Thesiz
eofther
egi
steri
sagoodi
ndi
cat
ionofhowmuchi
nfor
mat
iont
hepr
ocessorcan
oper
ateonatat
ime.
Ty
pesofr
egi
ster
s.
Ther
ear
esev
eral
typesofr
egi
ster
swhi
chi
ncl
ude:
1.Addr
essregi
ster
s–t heseareregi
stersusedforhol
dingaddressoft
henext
pi
eceofinst
ruct
iontobeexecuted.Theyincl
ude:Pr
ogram Counter(
PC)
,stack
poi
nter(
SP)andt hei
ndexregi
stersHandL.
2.I
nst
ruct
ionRegist
er–Thi
sisusedf
orhol
dingt
hei
nst
ruct
ionst
hatar
ejustabout
t
obeprocessed.
3.AccumulatorRegi
ster–Regi
sterusedf
orhol
dingt
her
esul
tsofanoper
ati
ont
hat
hasjustbeencompletedbyt
heALU.
4.St
orageRegi
ster
:-Hol
dst
hepr
ocesseddat
aawai
ti
ngout
put
.

I
NPUTDEVI
CES.
Thesearedevicesusedforent
eri
ngdat
aand/ori
nstruct
ionstotheprocessi
ngunit.The
dataobt
ainedareconvertedi
ntobi
nar
ydigi
ts(
bit
s)inapr ocesscal
leddigi
ti
zat
ion.Data
andinst
ructi
onsfrom i
nputdevi
cesmustbedi
git
izedinorderfort
hem tobe
under
stoodbythecomput
ersyst
em.Inputdevi
cesar
ecategor
izedi
ntobr
oadclasses
namelykeyi
ngdevi
ces,
poi
nti
ngdevi
ces,scanni
ngdevi
cesandvoicer
ecogni
ti
on
devi
ces.

Key
ingdev
ices
Thesearethedevi
cesusedforent
eri
ngdatai
ntot
hecomput
erusi
ngasetofkey
s.
Theyincl
udethekeyboar
dandthekeypad.
i
. Key
boar
d
Thi
sisadevi
ceusedt
oent
ertext
ualdat
aintothecomputer
.Iti
ssi
mil
art
oat
ypewr
it
er
key
boar
d,towhi
chsomespeci
alkey
shav ebeenadded.
Mostcomputerkey
boar
dsfol
lowtheQWERTYpatt
ern,whi
chreferstothesequenceof
t
healphabetkey
sonthetopl
eftr
owonastandar
dtypewri
terkeyboard.
Duri
ngt
hekey
ingpr
ocess,
thekey
boar
ddat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsar
edi
spl
ayedont
he
scr
een.
Cat
egor
iesofkey
sont
hecomput
erkey
boar
d.
Al
lthekey
sont
hekey
boar
dfal
li
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies:
a.Al
phanumer
ickey
s–Thesear
ethekey
sf oundbelowthefunct
ionkey
s.Theyar
e
marked0t
o9andalsoAtoZandal
soincludepunct
uati
onmar ks.
b.Numerickeypad–Thesekeysarefoundattherighthandsi
deofthekeyboar
d.
Theyarenumber ed0to9andalsoincl
udeari
thmeticoper
ati
onsconsol
i
datedin
onecorner.Thi
skeypadi
sacti
vatedanddeactiv
atedbypressi
ngthenumberlock
(Num-Lock)key.
c.Funct
ionkeys–thesekeysarefoundontopoft hekeyboar
d.Theyaremar
ked
F1toF12.Theyareusedtoperf
orm speci
alfuncti
onsthatvar
ydependi
ngont
he
progr
am/appli
cati
onrunni
nginthecomput erattheti
me.
d.Arr
owkeys-Thesear
et hekeysusedf
ormov
ingthecursorar
oundthescr
een.
Theyar
efouri
nnumberwi t
harrowsdr
awnonthem.Alsocall
edcur
sor
movementkey
soredit
ingkeys.
e.Speci
alkeys–Theseareoneit
hersideofthekeyboar
dnextt
ot heal
phabetkeys.
Theyareusedtoper
for
m speci
alfunct
ionsthatar
econst
antregardl
essofthe
progr
am runni
ngi
nthecomputer.
 Somespeci
alkey
sar
easf
oll
ows:
KEY SYMBOL USE
i
. NumberLock Num-
Lock Ifpr
essedoncewhent henumeri
c
keypadisinacti
ve,t
henumberlockis
acti
vatedandal i
ghtcomesonatt he
keystatusfoundabovethenumeric
keypad.
i
i
. Capi
tal
Lock CapsLock Whenact ivat
ed,al
phabeticalkeys
displ
ayletter
sincapi
tal(upper
case).Pressi
ngthecapsl ockkey
canactivateordeact
ivat
ei t
dependingont hecur
rentsituati
onof
thekey.
i
i
i. Shi
ftkey Isusedt ogetherwiththenumber
keys, t
hesecondar ycharacter
sare
displayedandwi thalphabetkeys,
l
et t
ersinupper /
lowercasear e
displayeddependingont hestatusof
thecapsl ock.
i
v. Ent
erkey Usedtoexecuteacommandandt
o
st
artanewlineoftex
t.
v
. Backspace Del
etest
extf
rom r
ightt
olef
t.

v
i. Del
ete Del Alsousedfordel
eti
ngonl
ybut
delet
estextf
rom l
eftt
ori
ght
.
v
ii
. I
nser
t I
ns Usedforchangi
ngtypi
ngmodef r
om
i
nsertmodetotypeoverandv
ice-
ver
sa.
v
ii
i. Page-up PgUp Displaysinformat
iont
hati
sinone
pageabov etheonedi
spl
ayedonthe
currentscreen.
i
x. Pagedown. PgDn Displaysinformat
iont
hati
sone
pagebel owt heonedi
spl
ayedont
he
currentscreen.
x. Tabul
ator
. Tab Movesthecur
sort
othenex
tpr
eset
posi
ti
ononadocument
xi
. home Home Usedf
ormov
ingt
hecur
sort
othe
 begi
nningofthel
i
nebei
ngt
yped,
or
al
readytyped.
xi
i
. End End Usedformovingt
hecursort
othe
endofthel
inebei
ngtypedoral
ready
ty
ped.
xi
i
i. Spacebar Usedforl
eavi
ngspacebetween
wordsandcharact
erswhi
l
etypi
ng.
xi
v. Escape Esc Usedforcancel
l
ingt
hecur
rent
i
nstr
ucti
on.
xv
. Pr
intscr
een Pr
tSc Forpri
nti
ngt
hescr
eencur
rent
ly
di
splayed

i
i
. Key
pad.
Thi
sisasmal l
key
boar
dwhi
chi
susedonpor
tabl
ecomput
erssuchaspal
mtopsand
smartphones.
Poi
nti
ngdev
ices
Thesearedev i
cesthatenterdat
aandinst
ruct
ionsint
ot hecomputerusingapoint
er
thatappearsonthescreen.Theit
emstobeent er
edareselect
edbyei t
herpoint
ing
toorcli
ckingonthem.Themostcommonl yusedpoint
ingdevicesi
nclude:t
he
mouse, j
oysti
ck,t
ouchscreenandli
ghtpen.
1.Mouse.
Thesedev
icehasari
ghtandleftbutt
on, atr
ackbal
l t
hatsl
i
desonafl
atsurf
aceanda
rot
ati
ngwheelont
op.Iti
susedt oselectthefunct
ionsandit
emsr
epresent
edonthe
scr
eenbycli
cki
ngtheappropr
iatebutton.
Mouset
echni
ques
Ther
ear
esev
eral
mouset
echni
queswi
thr
egar
dst
oit
soper
ati
on.Thesei
ncl
ude:
a.Cli
ck–thisispressi
ngandrel
easi
ngt
hel
eftmousebut
tononce.I
tisusedt
o
sel
ectorhighl
i
ghtani t
em.
b.Doubl
ecli
ck–t hi
smeanspressi
ngandr
eleasi
ngt
helef
tmousebut
tont
wicei
n
qui
cksuccessi
ontoopenf
il
es,fol
der
sorprogr
ams.
c.Ri
ghtcl
i
ck–pressi
ngandr
eleasi
ngt
heri
ghtmousebut
tononce.I
tisusedt
o
di
spl
ayapop-
upmenuwhereonecansel
ectacommandofthei
rchoice.
d.Draganddrop–thi
sref
erst
othepressi
ngoftheleftmousebut
tononagi ven
i
tem andt
hendraggi
ngthei
tem whi
lest
il
lhol
dingthemousebutton.Thebutt
on
 i
srel
easedonl
ywhent
hei
tem hasr
eachedt
hedesi
redl
ocat
ion(
droppi
ng)
2.Joy
sti
cks
Thi
sisapointi
ngdevicet
hatconsi
stsofahandl
ethatlooksl
ikeagearshi
ftl
evert
hat
hasbeenmount edonabaseandoneormor ebut
tons.Thehandl
ecanbemov edi
n
sever
aldi
rect
ionstocont
rol
themov ementofani
mageonacomput ermonit
or.
3.Touchsensi
ti
vescr
eens.
Thesear
escr
eenst
hathav
ebeensensi
ti
zedt
orecei
vei
nputf
rom t
het
ouchofaf
inger
.
4.Li
ghtpens.
Thesearel
i
ghtsensit
ivepen-
li
kedevicesconnectedbyacabletot
hecomputersy
stem.
Theuserbr
ingsthel
ightpentothedesir
edpointonthescreenandpr
essest
hepen
butt
on,whi
chident
if
iesthescr
eenlocati
onont hecomputer.
Scanni
ngDev
ices.
Ascanni
ngdev
icecapt
uresdat
adi
rect
lyf
rom t
hesour
ce.Scanni
ngdev
icesi
ncl
ude:
1.Scanner
s.
Ascannerisusedtocapt
ureasourcedocumentandconverti
tint
oanel
ect
roni
cfor
m.
Thescannedobjectcant
henbeprocessedfur
thert
hroughedi
ti
ng.
Scanner
sar
eoft
wot
ypes,
namel
yhandhel
dandf
lat
bedscanner
s.
Ahandhel
dscanneri
smov edmanual
l
ybyhandacr ossthepagebeingscanned.
Handhel
dscanner
sarecheapandpor
tabl
e,butnotveryaccur
ateandconsist
entfor
pi
ctur
eandimagecaptur
e.
Thefl
atbedscannermovesacrossthepageorroll
sthepagethr
oughthescanner
mechanical
l
y.Thedocumentislai
df l
atont
hesur f
aceandthescannerr
emains
st
ati
oneryonadesk/tabl
eduri
ngthescanningprocess.
2.Documentr
eader
s.
Adocumentr
eaderi
sadevi
cethatr
eadsdatadir
ectl
yfr
om asour
cedocumentand
t
henconveyt
hem asi
nputi
nthefor
m ofel
ectr
onicsi
gnals.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofdocumentr
eader
snamel
y:opt
ical
reader
sandmagnet
icr
eader
s.
a.Opt
ical
reader
s
Theser
eader
suseabeam ofl
i
ghtt
ocapt
uredat
a.Theyi
ncl
ude:
i
. Opt
ical
Mar
kReader
s/Recogni
ti
onOMR)
I
nusingt
heOMRthesour
cedocumenti
spre-
pri
ntedwi
thalr
eadydefi
ned
dat
amarkswhi
char
ethenshadedi
npenci
l
.TheOMRi sthenusedtosense
 t
hepenci
lmarksandtr
ansferthepr
edet
ermineddatav
aluet
oacomput
eras
i
nput
.Thecomputert
heninter
pret
sthedat
ai nput
.
i
i
. Opt
ical
Char
act
erReader
s/r
ecogni
ti
on(
OCR)
AnOCRconnecteddi
rectl
ytoacomput err
eadschar
acter
sformedona
documentbyr
ecogni
zingthem basedontheamountofli
ghtt
heyref
lectf
rom
theOCR.
i
i
i. BarCodeReader
s.
Barcodereader
sarephot
oel
ect
ri
cscanner
sthatt
ransl
atebarcodesy
mbol
s
i
ntodigi
talf
orms.
Abarcodeconsistsofagroupofv ert
ical
darkbarst
hatvar
yinwidthandare
separat
edbyblankspaces.Thevariat
ionsofwidt
hofthebarandthespaces
areusedtoencodedif
ferenti
nfor
mat i
on.
i
v. Badger
eader
s.
Theseareusedt oreaddatafrom rectangularplasti
ccards.Thedat aont he
cardsareinbothmachi ne-r
eadableandhuman- sensi
bleform andthedat a
havebeenr ecordedusingmagnet icmar ks, opt
icalmarkspunchedhol es.The
datarecorderi
nt hebadgereadert hensensest hedataonthebadge
automatical
lyandconv eysthem asinput .Thecomput erprocessorthen
convert
st hi
sinputintomachi ne-
readablef ormf orpr
ocessinginorderto
provi
dethedesir edinf
ormation.
b.Magnet
icr
eader
s
Amagneticr
eaderisascanni
ngdev i
cethatreadsdatamadeusingmagnet i
cink.Thi
s
devi
cesusethepri
nci
pleofmagneti
sm tosenset hedocumentcharact
ers,
whichhave
beenwri
tt
enusingmagnetici
nk.Therearetwot y
pesofmagneticreader
s:
i
. Magnet
icI
nkChar
act
erReader
/Recogni
ti
on(
MICR)
Thi
sdevicer
ecognizesthepat
ter
nofmagnetizedcharacter
sandsendst
hem
i
ntothecomputersyst
em andareinputi
nfor
m ofelectr
onicsi
gnal
s.
i
i
. Magnet
icSt
ri
peReader
s(MSR)
Thi
sdevi
cereadsalay
erofmagnet
icmater
ial
ont
hesur
faceofapl
ast
iccar
d
andconv
eysitasi
nputtot
hecomputer
.
Speechr
ecogni
ti
ondev
ices.
Thesedev i
cesarealsoknownasv oiceinputdevi
ces.Theycapturedat
athroughthe
microphonewhichconv er
tsvoicesignalsint
oelectroni
csignal
s.Thedataarethen
processedint
omachi ne-r
eadableform.Incomput ersystemswherespeechrecognit
ion
devicesareused,t
hesy st
em isprogr ammedt orecognizethev
oiceoftheuser.
Di
git
izer
sorDi
git
izi
ngTabl
et
Adi git
izeri
sani nputdevicethatconv er
tsgraphi
caldr
awingsorimagesonpaperor
othermat eri
alintodigi
taldat
aandconv eythem t
othecomput ersystem asinput
.A
digi
tizerconsi
st sofatabletconnect edbyacabletoastyl
usorpuck.Ast y
lusisapen-
l
ikedev icewhicht heusersketchesani magewhileapuckisacopy ingdevice.Wri
ti
ng
ordr awingisdonebyhandusi ngt hestyl
us.Acomputerconnectedtothet abl
et
displaysthewritingsonthescr een.
Di
git
alcamer
as
Thi
sisani
nputdev
icethatcapt
uresandstor
esimagesini
tsmemoryi
ndigi
talfor
m.
Thi
scamer
aisthenconnectedtothecomputert
hroughaUSBpor
ttoobt
aintheimages.
Out
putdev
ices.
Comput er
sprocessdatatopr oduceinf
ormation.Theinf
ormati
onfrom acomput
eris
gi
v enoutthr
oughoutputdevices.Thesedevicesjustl
i
ket hei
nputdevi
cesare
connectedtotheCentr
alProcessingUnit(CPU)v i
aacable.Computerout
putdev
ices
areeit
hersoftcopyorhar
dcopyout putdevi
ces.
Sof
tcopyout
putdev
ices.
Asoft
copyout
putisthatwhichcanbel
i
stenedt
oorbev
iewedbuti
ntangi
ble.Wehav
e
t
hefol
lowi
ngoutputdevices.
i
. Moni
tor
sal
soknownasVi
sual
Displ
ayUni
ts(
VDUs)
i
i
. Soundout
put
i
i
i. Li
ghtEmi
tt
ingDi
odes(
LEDs)
Moni
tor
s.
Theyarealsorefer
redtoasVisualDi
splayUnits(VDUs)orsi
mplyscreens.These
dev
icesfor
mi magesf r
om t
inydotscall
edpixelsarr
angedinarect
angularpatt
ern.Ona
col
ouredscreen,
eachpixeli
smadeofr ed,greenandblue(RGB)dots.
Moni
tordi
spl
ayt
erms
1.Resol
uti
on–Thisrefer
stothesharpnessanddensi
tyofanimageonthescr
een;
themorethenumberofpi
xels,
theclearert
heimagee.
g.aresol
uti
onof1280X
720meansy oucansee1280pixel
shorizontal
l
yand720pix
elsver
ti
cal
ly
.
2.Refr
eshrate–Thespeedt heenti
rescreenisr
escannedorredr
awn.Higher
fr
equenci
esreducesfl
ickeri.e.t
heyli
ghtthepi
xelsmorefr
equentl
yreduci
ngthe
di
mmi ngthatcausesf
licker.
3.Aspectr
ati
o–Thisisthenumberwhichgi
vesther
ati
oofver
ticalpoi
ntst
othe
hori
zont
alpoi
ntsnecessar
ytopr
oduceequall
i
nesineachdi
recti
onofthescr
een
 e.g.anaspectrat
ioof3:4meanst hatthever
ti
call
ineplot
tedwit
h3pointshas
samel engt
hashor i
zontall
inepl
ottedwith4point
sthustheaspectr
ati
oofa
moni t
ordescri
bestherati
oofimagei ntermsofit
ssize.
4.Dotpit
ch–Ameasureofi
magecl
ari
tyi
nter
msoft
hedi
stancebet
weeneach
pi
xelonaver
ti
cal
area.
Ty
pesofmoni
tor
s
Monit
orsar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
othet
echnol
ogyusedwi
tht
hem i
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ng
t
ypes:
1.Cat
hodeRayTube(
CRT)Moni
tor
s.
Thesearescreenswhi chusecat
hoderaytubes.Acathoder
aytube(CRT)i
sa
vacuum tubeinwhichaf l
owofelect
ronsi
spr oducedanddi
rect
edontoa
fl
uorescentscreentocreat
eimagesandtext.
2.Fl
atpanel
displ
ayt
echnol
ogi
es
Thesearemadeoftwoplatesofglasswit
hsomemat
eri
ali
nbetweenthem.The
materi
ali
sacti
vat
edindif
ferentways.Someoft
hemat
eri
alsusedbet
weenthe
twoplat
esincl
udethef
oll
owi ng:
i
. Li
quidCryst
al–t hi
sisaliqui
dt hatchangesinappear
ancebetweenbeing
cl
earandcloudy.Thisappearancedependsonv ari
ati
onsintemper
ature
orvol
tageappli
ed.Af l
atpaneldisplaywit
hthismater
ial
iscall
edaLiquid
Cry
stalDi
splay(LCD).
I
nthesedispl
ays,el
ect
ri
cit
yisappl
i
edtocel
lsofl
i
quidcr
ystal
toal
tert
he
vi
sualpr
opert
iesofanimage.LCDsusel
esspowerandpr
oduceli
tt
leor
noradi
ati
on.
i
i
. Elect
rolumi
nescentdi
spl
ay:
-Thist
ypeofmater
ial
contai
nsaphosphor
substancet
hatglowswheniti
schargedwi
thanel
ectr
iccur
rent
.
i
i
i. Gasplasmadi
spl
ay:
-Thi
stypeofdi
spl
ayusesagast
hatemi
tsl
i
ghti
n
pr
esenceofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.
Flatpaneldi
splayscr
eensareeit
heractiv
emat r
ixorpassiv
ematri
x.In
activ
emat ri
x,eachpi
xelonthescreeniscont
rol
ledbyitsowntr
ansist
or.
Inpassivemat r
ix,
atr
ansist
orcontrol
sawholeroworcol umnofpi
xelson
thescreen.
3.Thi
nFi
l
m Tr
ansi
stor(
TFT)di
spl
ays
Thesear
emor eadvancedtypeofdispl
ayst
hatgi
vef
ull
colouri
magesandahi gh
qual
it
youtput
.Eachpixelonthescr
eeniscont
rol
l
edbyitsowntransi
stor
.Thi
s
gi
vesahigherr
esol
utionandmor econtr
ast
.
 4.Fi
eldEmi
ssi
onDi
spl
ays(
FEDs)
Theseusetwot hi
nsheetsofglassami ll
i
meterapart,separ
atedbyav acuum.
Thebackglassismadeupofmi l
lionsofti
nytipst
hatcanbeswi tchedonandoff
andfi
reel
ectronsonthefrontscreenacrossthevacuum.Whent hephosphor
dotsar
ehitbytheelect
rons,t
heygl owtoproduceli
ghtandshar pimages.
Soundout
put
Soundasanout puthasbecomecommonwi thmul
ti
mediaappl
i
cat
ions.Thesound
produceddependsonthetypeofspeaker
sbei
ngused.
Li
ghtEmi
tt
ingDi
odes(
LEDs)
Alightemitti
ngdi ode(
LED)isasmall
lowerpowerdevicethatemit
sli
ghtwhena
currentf
lowst hroughi
t.LEDsar
eusedinequipmentasindicat
orli
ght
st osi
gni
fy
vari
ousev ents.Theyaremadeindi
ff
erentcol
orsl
ikered,greenandorangeamong
others.
Har
dcopyout
putdev
ices.
Ahardcopyout
putdevi
ceproducesoutputonpaper
.Thet
womai
nty
pesofhar
dcopy
out
putdevi
cesarepr
int
ersandplot
ter
s.
1.Pr
int
ers
Thesear
ethemostcommonhar dcopyout
putdev
ices.Pr
int
ersar
ebr
oadl
ydi
vi
dedi
nto
i
mpactandnon-
impactpr
int
ers.
I
mpactpr
int
ers.
Ani mpactpri
nterhasmetal
li
chammer sorpi
nsonthepri
ntheadwhichareusedt o
str
ikeaninkedribbononpaper.Theyuset
hesamemechanism asthetr
aditi
onal
ty
pewr i
ter
s.Impactpri
nter
sarealsointwoty
pes:
charact
erpri
nter
sandlinepri
nter
s.
a.Char
act
erpr
int
ers
Thesepr
int
erspr
intachar
act
eratat
ime.Someexampl
esofchar
act
erpr
int
ersar
e:
i
. Dotmat
ri
xpr
int
ers.
Witht
hispr
inter
s,eachchar
acterpr
intedisi
nfor
m ofapatt
ernofdotsandthepri
nt
headconsi
stsofamat r
ixofpi
nswhi chcomeouttofor
m acharact
ertobepri
nted.
i
i
. Dai
syWheel
pri
nter
s.
Thepri
ntheadofthi
spri
nterl
iesonawheel andpr
int
smakingt hecharact
ersar
e
arr
angedi
napat t
erncor
respondi
ngtopetal
sofdaisyfl
ower.Thispri
nterpr
oduces
morequal
itypr
int
sthanthedotmatr
ixpri
nter.
b.Li
nepr
int
ers.
Thesepri
nter
spr
intawhol
eli
neofchar
act
ersatt
ime.Someexampl
esofl
i
nepr
int
ers
i
nclude:
i
. Dr
um pr
int
ers:
Thi
spri
nteri
sli
keadrum inshape.Thesurf
aceofthi
s‘drum’
isdiv
idedint
oa
numberoftr
ackscor
respondi
ngtothesizeofthepaper
.Acharact
ersetisthen
embossedoneachtr
ack.
i
i
. Chai
npr
int
ers.
Inthesepri
nter
s,achai
nofchar
act
erset
sar
eusedt
opr
intawhol
eli
neof
charact
ers.
Non-
impactpr
int
ers
I
nt heseprinter
s,t
hepri
ntelementsdoesnotcomeintocontactwiththepaper.These
pri
ntersproducehighqual
it
youtputataveryhi
ghspeed.Non- i
mpactpr i
nter
sarein
thr
eet ypes.Thesearel
aserpri
nter
s,t
hermalpri
nter
sandinkjetpr
inters.
i
. Laserpr
int
ers.
Thewor dl
aseri
sanacr onym whichstandsforLightAmpli
fi
cati
onbyStimul
ated
Emissi
onRadiat
ion.Thelaserpri
nteristhemostcommont ypeofnon-
impactpr
int
ers.
Thetechnol
ogyofthelaserpri
nterresemblesthatofaphotocopi
er.
Iti
smadeupoft woparts;theengi
neandt hecontroller.Theenginetransf
erstheimage
heldonanel ectr
ostati
cdrum tothepaper,whichist hemedi um onwhi chthei
magei s
produced.Thecont rol
l
er,whichiscal
l
edt hedriver
,instructstheengineonwhatt odo
andhowt ogoabouti t
.Theengineiselectri
cal
lychar gedbyal aserbeam totr
aceout
thelet
terandt heimagest hatar
etobepr i
nted.Thepr i
nti
ngisdonebyuseofat oner
whichconsistsoffineblackpowderofcar bon.
Thequali
tyofthechar
acter
sprint
eddependsont hepri
nter
s’resoluti
on.Resol
utioni
n
thi
scaserefer
stothelev
elofr
epr oducti
onofdetai
lgi
venbyapr inter
.Resolut
ionis
measuredindotsperi
nch(dpi
).Thef i
nerthedot
sare,t
hehighert heresol
uti
on.
i
i
. Ther
mal
pri
nter
s
Int
hesepr
int
ers,
thepr
intheadhasheat
ingel
ement
s.Cur
renti
spassedt
hrought
hem
andfor
mtheshapeofaprintchar
act
er.
Thesekindofpri
nter
suseaspecialpaperthatcansensetheheat
edheadchar
act
er
i
mageswhi charethenpassedont
ot hepaper.Thedisadv
antageofusi
ngt
hesepr
int
ers
i
sthattheyareexpensi
vetoacqui
reandmai ntai
n.
i
i
i. I
nkj
etpr
int
ers
Thesepri
nter
spr
intbyspr
ayi
ngi
nkonpaper
.Thepaperal
l
owst
hei
nkt
oset
tl
eanddr
y
qui
ckly
.
 2.Pl
ott
ers
Pl
ott
ersaredev
icesdesi
gnedt opr
oducehighqual
i
tygr
aphi
cs.Theyareusef
ulf
or
cr
eati
ngmapsandar chi
tect
uraldr
awi
ngs,char
tsandgr
aphs.Thefol
l
owingarethe
di
ff
erentt
ypesofgraphplot
ter
s:
i
. Drum pl
ott
er s–Theseusear ol
lofpaperwoundonadrum.Therol
lofpaper
canbemov edei
therbackwar
dorforward.I
tal
sohasapenthatmov esf
rom
ri
ghtt
oleft.Thehorizont
almovementofthedrum al
l
owsanydi
rect
ionalf
igur
e
tobeproduced.
i
i
. Fl
atbedplot
ter
s–intheseplott
ers,
apieceofpaperoff i
xedsizeisl
aidonaflat
bed.Amov abl
epenisthenusedtoproduceagraphical;
output.Anar
mi nthe
pl
ottermovesupanddownabov ethepaperwhenv ert
icalmovementisrequi
red.
i
i
i. Digi
talplot
ter
s–Adi gi
talpl
ott
eruseselect
roni
cchargestocreat
eti
nydotson
special
lytr
eatedpaper
.Theyrecei
vedi
gitali
nput
sthatspeci
fytheposi
ti
onto
whichthepenshouldmov eli
keamapr efer
ence.
Comput
ermemor
y
Comput ermemor yi sthestoragespacei nthecomput erwher ethedat atobe
processed,t
hoset hathavebeenpr ocessedandpr ogr
am inst r
uctionsarestored.Itis
madeupofal argenumberofel ectroni
ccircui
tsonasemi -
conduct or(si
li
con)chi p.The
ci
rcuit
sar egr
oupedi ntomemor ycel l
swhichareinturnorgani zedintorowsand
columns.Eachcel lcanbeel ectr
ical
lychargedornotel ect
rical
lychargedt orepresent1
and0r espect
ively
.Ther ef
oreeachmemor ycellst
oresabi tofdata.
Agroupof8bi
tsi
sref
err
edtoasabyte,
1024by
tesmakesaki
loby
te(
KB),1024Kbs
ar
eknownasamegabyte(Mbs)
,1024mbsmakeagigaby
te(
Gb)andsoon.
Comput
ermemor
yisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo:
1.Mai
nmemor
y
2.Auxi
l
iar
ymemor
y.

Mai
nmemor
y
Themainmemor yi
salsor
efer
redt
oasthepri
marymemor
yort
heimmediateaccess
st
ore.I
tisatypeofcomputermemoryt
hati
sfast
,hasl
i
mit
edst
oragecapaci
tyand
di
rect
lyaccessedbytheCPU.
Ty
pesofmai
nmemor
y
Themai
nmemor
yisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
womaj
ort
ypesnamel
y:Random AccessMemor
y
(
RAM)andReadOnl
yMemor
y.(
ROM)
.
Random AccessMemor
y.(
RAM)
RAM isvolat
il
ememor y,thati
s,i
tscontentsgetdel
etedwhenmemor ycel
l
sl osepower
oncethecomput erisswi t
chedoff.I
tcanber eadandwrit
tento.RAM cont
ributesabout
70%ofpr i
marymemor y
.Thesizeandty peofRAM deter
minesthepoweroft he
computer.ThelargertheRAM acomput erhas,t
hegreat
ertheabil
it
yofthecomput erto
perf
orm complext asks.
Ty
pesofRAM
RAM canbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypesasf
oll
ows:
1.St
ati
cRandom AccessMemor
y(SRAM)
:
Thi
sisnor
mal
highspeedRAM,
thati
s,v
olat
il
e.I
tismadeofonl
y6t
ransi
stor
sfora
si
ngl
ecell
.
2.Dy
nami
cRandom AccessMemor
y(DRAM)
.
Thi
sisatypeofRAM whichusescapaci
torstoimplementbitstorage.Theref
ore,
DRAM
l
osesdat
aaf t
ersometi
meandr equir
esrefreshi
ngthatis,
rewrit
ingofcontentsafter
someti
me.DRAM ischeaperandhasahi ghercapaci
tybutslowercompar edtoSRAM.
ReadOnl
yMemor
y.
ROM isnon-
vol
ati
lememoryi
.e.i
tscontent
sarepermanentanddonotgetdeleted
whenthecomputeri
sswi
tchedoff.Hence,
itcanonl
ybereadfrom butcannotbe
wri
tt
entoit.
ROM r
epr
esent
sabout30%oft
hemai
nMemor
y.
Ty
pesofROM
ROM canbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
1.Pr
ogr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y(PROM)
.
Thi
sty
peofROM i
spr
ogr
ammedonl
yoncet
henr
eadt
her
eaf
ter
.
2.Er
asabl
ePr
ogr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y.(
EPROM)
.
ThisROM canbeprogr
ammedanderasedoncemor
e.Theymustber
emov
edf
rom
thecomputeri
nordert
obeer
ased.
3.El
ect
ri
cal
l
yAl
ter
abl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y.(
EAROM)
.
ThistypeofROM canber ead,er
asedandr e-
wri
tt
enwit
houtr
emovi
ngtheROM
chipsfrom thecomput
er.Select
edlocat
ionscanbeer
asedandpr
ogrammedl
eav
ing
theotherlocati
ons.
 4.El
ect
ri
cal
l
yEr
asabl
ePr
ogr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y.(
EEPROM)
.
I
tist
hesameasEAROM onl
ythati
tiswhol
l
yel
ect
ri
cal
l
yer
ased.

SECONDARYMEMORY
Afterdat
aandi nformat i
onhavebeenpr ocessedi nacomput ersyst
em,itisnecessary
tostorecopiesoft hesamef orfut
urereference.Secondarycomputerstoragedevices
areusedf orthi
spur pose.I
tisimport
antt oalwaysmakeback- upsofinf
or mati
onand
datainsuchdev icesandst or
ethem safely.Tobackupmeanst oproduceduplicat
eof
i
nformationanddat a.Thedupli
cat
ealsoknownast hebackup,i
snormallystor
edaway
fr
om theor i
ginalone.
Thebackinguppr ocessfreesthecomputersystem ofspacetorunot herprograms.If
alldat
aandi nf
ormationprocessedarej
uststoredinthecomput ersystem, t
hisleav
es
thesystem wit
hinadequateroom int
heprimarymemor yforexecut
ingpr ograms.This
slowsdownt hecomput ersyst
em.
Ty
pesofsecondar
yst
oragedev
icesandmedi
a.
St
oragedev
icesandmedi
acanbr
oadl
ybedi
vi
dedi
nto:
a.Fi
xed/
int
ernal
stor
agedev
icesandmedi
a.
b.Remov
abl
e/ext
ernal
stor
agedev
icesandmedi
a.
Fi
xedst
oragedev
icesandmedi
a.
Alsoknownast heinternalst
oragedevicesandmedi a.Theyaredevicesthatareinbui
lt
withi
nthesy stems’ uni
t.anexampleofaf i
xedstor
agedev icei
sthehar ddisk,made
fr
om met alplatescoatedwi t
hat hi
nfil
m ofmagnet i
cox i
de.Sometimesahar ddi
skcan
bear emov ablestoragemedi awhenitisusedforbackingupdata.Dat astoredi
nt he
harddisk,especiall
yanext er
nalharddiskcanbetransferr
edfrom oneplacet oanother
.
Remov
abl
est
oragedev
icesandmedi
a.
Thesedevi
cesar
ealsocal
l
edexternal
stor
agedevi
cesandmedi asi
ncet
heyar
enot
fi
xedonthecomput
ersyst
em uni
t.Theyar
eintwocategor
ies:
i
. Magnet
icdev
icesandmedi
a.
i
i
. Opt
ical
dev
icesandmedi
a.
Magnet
icdev
icesandmedi
a
Theseusemagnet
ict
echnologyt
ost
oredat
a.Theyi
ncl
udef
loppydi
sks,
magnet
ic
tapesandzi
pandj
azzdisks.
 1.Fl
oppydi
sks.
Thesecamewi t
htheadventofmi
crocomputer
s.Theyareusedtodist
ribut
esof t
ware
andtobackup.Thetwocommont ypesoffl
oppydisksarethe5inchand3i nch.Each
ofthesef
loppydi
skshadalowdensityandahighdensi
tyversi
on.
Theyhav
eamet al
hub,
whi chi
saroundmetalpl
atefoundatt
hecenteroft
hedi
sket
te.
Thehubishel
dbythef
loppydri
veasitr
otat
esduringthewri
ti
ngandreadi
ngpr
ocess.
Datastoredinthesedisksisarr
angedal ongaser iesofconcentr
icr
ingscalledtr
acks.
Eachtrackisdivi
dedintoanumberofsect ors.Dataisreadfr
om andwr it
tentoadi sk
onesect oratati
me.Asect orusual
lycont ai
ns512or1024by tesofdata.Theprocess
ofdivi
dingadiskintotracksandsectorssot hatitcanbeusedonacomput erbya
gi
venoper ati
ngsystem isknownasf ormat t
ing.Anewdi skmustbef or
mat tedbefore
useifi
twasnotpr ef
ormat t
edatthefactory.

Not
ethatfl
oppydisket
tesar
eal
readyout
dated.Moder
ncomput
ersy
stemsar
ebei
ng
manuf
actur
edwithoutthepr
ovi
sionf
orafl
oppydriv
e.
2.Magnet
ict
apes.
Thesear
esimil
artot
aperecor
ders,
inthat
,amagnet
ict
apei
swr
it
tent
oorr
eadf
rom as
i
tpassesthemagnet
icheadsoft
hetapedriv
e.
Theyareoft
enusedtostor
ebackupsbecauseofthei
rlar
gestoragecapaci
ti
esand
sequent
ial
access,
whichprov
idesbet
tersecur
it
yfordataandinfor
mation.
3.Zi
pandj
azdi
sks.
Thesedi
sksar
esi
mil
art
ofl
oppydi
sksonl
ythatt
heyhav
elar
gest
oragecapaci
ti
es.
Opt
ical
disks
Thesedisksuseli
ghttechnology.Datastor
edisreadandwri
tt
enbyalaserbeam
ref
lect
ingonthedisksurface.Theprocessofstori
ngdat
ainanopt
icaldi
skiscal
led
burni
ngorwriti
ng.
Thedi
skonl
yst
art
sspi
nni
ngwhencommandedandt
hedev
icemustspi
nupt
othe
corr
ectspeedeachti
meitisaccessed.Opt
ical
disksar
eint
wot
ypes:
CompactDi
sks
(CDs)andDigi
talVer
sat
il
eDisks(DVDs).
a.CompactDi
sks(
CDs)
Theseopti
cal
diskskeepdat
ainonelayeroft
hesur
face.Theyhav
elowst
orage
capaci
ti
esofupto650MB.Somet ypesofCompactDisksare:
i
. CD-ROM –thi
smeanstheCompactDiskReadOnl
yMemory.Oncedataand
i
nformati
onar
estoredi
naCD-ROM,theusercanonl
yber
eadfrom t
hedisk,
but
notwri
teorst
oreanymoredat
aontoit.
i
i
. CD-R–Thi
smeansCompactDi skRecordabl
e.Oncedat
aandinfor
mationare
st
oredonaCD-R,thedevi
cecannotall
owanymor etobeadded.Theyaresol
d
bl
ankandtheni
nformati
onisrecor
dedont hem.Theyar
ealsocheap.
i
i
i. CD-RW –ThismeansCompactDi
skRewrit
abl
e.Anydat
aori
nfor
mati
onstoredin
CD-RW di
sksar
ealsocal
l
edCompactDisksEr
asabl
e(CDE)
.Theyar
ealsosold
bl
ank.
b.Di
git
alVer
sat
il
e/Vi
deoDi
sks(
DVDs)
Thesediskskeepdataontwolay
ersofeachsur
face.DVDshav
ehi
ghmemor
ycapaci
ty
andpreserveexcel
l
entqual
it
yofstor
eddata.
ADVDcanst
oreupt
o34GBofdat
a.
Justl
i
keCDs,
ther
eexi
stsDVD-
RandDVD-
RW.
4.Fl
ashst
orage
Thisisamoder nt
ypeofEEPROM wi thfast
erer
asureandwriti
ngtimes.Theyarealso
knownassol i
dstat
est oragedevicesbecauset
heircomponentsdonotmov e.Theyare
madei ntegrat
edcir
cui t
sjustRAM andROM.Thecompar at
iveslownessofdisksand
tapescausedbyt hephy sical
mov ementoftherecordi
ngsur
faceandoft heheadshas
beenov ercomebyt hesedev i
ces.Someex ampl
esoff l
ashstor
ageareflashdiskswhich
usetheUni ver
salSerialBus(USB)portandmemor ycard.
Secondar
ymemor
yconsi
der
ati
ons
Vol
ume
Thisagener
alt
ermforanyi
ndi
vi
dualphysi
cal
stor
agemedi um thatcanbewr
it
tent
oor
readfr
om.Exampl
esincl
udeafi
xedharddi
sk,aCD-ROM oraflashdisk.
For
mat
ti
ng
Thi
sist
hewr
it
ingofar
egul
arpat
ter
nofbl
anksect
orsont
othet
racks.
Theformatdet
erminestheeff
ect
ivestor
agecapacit
yforthevol
ume.Format
sdepend
uponthemanufact
urerandtheoperat
ingsy
stem used.I
fdataist
obetransf
err
edfr
om
onecomputert
oanother
,notonl
ymustt
hevol
umebephy si
cal
l
yint
erchangeabl
e
bet
weenthedri
ves,
thevolumefor
matmustbecompat
ibl
etoo.

Fr
agment
ati
on
Asdat ai
sst oredonanewl yfor matteddisk,thedatai swrit
tentounusedcont i
guous
sectorsi
.e.thosesect orswhichf oll
owoneanot her.Ifdataiserased,thenthedeleted
sectorsmayl eave‘holes’offreespacebet weent heusedsect ors.Overti
me, af
termany
i
nsertsanddel etes,t
hesef reesect orsmaybescat teredacrosst hedi
sksucht hatther
e
maybev eryl i
ttl
econtiguousf reespace.Thi sphenomenoni sknownasdi sk
fr
agment ati
on.Itslowsdownt hewr i
ti
ngpr ocessandwi l
lal
sosl owdownany
subsequentr eads.Therefore,performancei sreduced.Aspeci al di
skdefr
agment er
program i
susedt oreorganizet hedataont hedisksoast oeliminatethefragmentati
on.
Powerandi
nter
facedev
ices.
Therearetwocabl est
hatareusedwi thcomputersyst
emsnamel ythedat
ainter
face
andpowercabl es.Theonet hatcarri
esdataiscall
edthedatai
nterf
acecabl
esordata
buses.Datainterfacecabl
estransferdatausi
ngtwomet hodsnamelytheser
ialand
paral
lel
transfers.Dataiscar
riedinbit
s,thati
s,0sand1s.
Dat
aint
erf
acedev
ices.
Par
all
elcabl
es
Withthi
stypeofcabl
es,ei
ghtwi
reareusedtotransferi
nfor
mati
on.Eachbitof
i
nformati
ontrav
elsonit
sownwire.Theeightwiresall
oweachbyte(8bi
ts)tobe
t
ransfer
redatoncee.
g.IDEandMBUSser ial
cables.
Ser
ial
cabl
es.
I
nser
ialcables,
thetr
ansf
erofi
nformati
onusesasingl
ewirewher
ebit
sf oll
oweach
ot
her
.Serial
cablesaresl
owindatatr
ansmissi
onbutef
fici
entf
orl
ongdistances.
Devi
cessuchast
hekey
boar
d,mouse,
scanner
sandl
i
ghtpensuseser
ial
por
tse.
g.PCl
e,
SATAandUSB.
Uni
ver
sal
Ser
ial
Bus(
USB)por
t.
Thisist
heex ter
nal seri
albuspor tt
hatal
lowsmanymoder nexter
naldevi
cestobe
connect
edt otheCPU.USBi sanindust
rystandardini
ti
all
ydev
elopedinthemid-1990s
thatdef
inesthecabl es,connect
ion,communi cat
ionandpowersupplybetween
computersandel ectroni
cdev i
ces.
USBwasdesignedt
ostandar
dizet
heconnect
ionofcomputerperi
pher
alstoper
sonal
comput
ers,
bothtocommunicat
eandtosupplyel
ectr
icpower.I
thasalsobeenusedon
ot
herdev
icessuchassmar
tphones,
PDAsandv
ideogameconsol
es.
Therearethr
eebasi
cfor
matsofconnect
ion,t
hedefaul
torst
andardformatintendedfor
desktoporport
abl
eequi
pmentsuchasfl
ashdisks,
theminii
ntendedformobi l
e
equipmentli
kecamer
asandthethi
nnermicr
osizeforl
owprofi
lemobileequipmentli
ke
mobi l
ephones.
TheseUSBconnect
orsal
sohav edef
err
ingmodesofdatatransf
erinor
derofi
ncreasi
ng
bandwi
dthbei
ng:l
owspeed(from 1.
0)ful
lspeedf
rom 1.
0,highspeedf
rom 2.
0,super
speedf
rom 3.
0andsuperspeedplusfr
om 3.1.
USBconnect
ionsar
edir
ect
edwithbothupstr
eam anddownstr
eam por
tsemanat
ing
fr
om asi
nglehost
.Downst
ream f
aci
ngportsprov
idepower.
USBcabl
eshavet
wodi
ff
erentends:
AandBwi thdi
ff
erentphy
sical
connect
orsf
oreach.
Commonlyt
heAendi
susuall
ythestandar
dfor
matandt heBsidevar
iesov
erst
andar
d
mini
andmicr
o.
Ot
hert
ypesofpor
ts.
Vi
deo/
moni
torpor
ts.
Thesear
eusedf
orconnect
ingmoni
tor
stosy
stemsuni
t.
Audi
opor
ts
Thesepor
tssupportthemult
imedi
aappl
icat
ionsini
nput
ti
ngandout
put
ti
ngsound.
Theremaybeportsformicr
ophoneandspeaker
s.
Comput
erhar
dwar
esel
ect
ioncr
it
eri
a.
Ther
earecert
ainhardwar
especi
fi
cat
ionst
hatmustbef
oll
owedwhenchoosi
nga
comput
ersystem.Theseare:
i
. Processorspeed: -Thespeedwi t
hwhi chthecomput erprocessorcarr
iesout
i
tstasksi smeasur edbyHertz(Hz).Themor ecyclesapr ocessorcompletes
i
nonesecond, t
hehighert
her at
eofdat aprocessi
ng.Whenpur chasi
nga
comput ersystem,iti
simportanttocheckt hespeedofthepr ocessorandt he
processortype.Thehighertheprocessorspeed,thefasterthecomput er
.
i
i
. Memor ycapacit
y:-Thememor ycapaci t
ydeterminest
henumberof
i
nstructi
onsacomput ercanholdatanyspeci f
icti
me.Whenthememor y
neededbyapr ogram andthedataitprocessesismorethantheRAM
i
nstall
edinthecomput er
,thej
obmayabor tortaketi
met opr
ocess.The
processorworkshandinhandwi t
ht hememor y.Foracomputertobefast
,
theprocessi
ngspeedandt hememor yshouldbehigh.
i
i
i. Upgr
adabi
l
ity
:-Toupgr
adeacomput
ermeanstoaddani
mpr
oveddev
icet
oit
.
Upgr
adi
ngacomputeri
mprov
esit
scapabi
l
iti
es.
i
v. Userneeds:i
tisimport
antt
oconsidertheappli
cationsrequi
redf
ora
computeraswel l
astheuni
queneedsoft heusers.Userswithey
estr
ain
mightrequi
retobeprovi
dedwit
hant i
glar
emoni t
orwhi l
euserswhoare
vi
suall
yhandicappedmayrequi
ret
ousebr ai
l
lekeyboards.
v
. Cost:
-thecostofthecomput
ert
obepur
chasedshoul
dbewi
thi
nthebudget
wit
houtcompromisingont
hequal
it
y.
v
i. Port
abi
l
ity:
-thi
sistheabi
li
tyofthecomput
ertobecar
ri
edfr
om oneplaceto
anot
her
.Itdependswit
hthenatureoft
heworktobedonebythecomputer
.
v
ii
. Compat i
bil
i
ty:-t
hismeanst heabi
l
ityofthecomputert
ofiti
notherdev
ices
andwor kharmoniously
.Whenupgradingcomputerhar
dware,i
tisi
mportant
thatonebuysadev icethati
scompati
blewitht
heexist
ingone.
v
ii
i. Dur
abi
li
ty:-t
hisref
erstot
heshelfl
if
eofthedevi
ce.I
tisimport
anttoacqui
re
acomputerdevi
cethatwi
llbeusedforal
ongperi
odwithoutwear
ingout.
i
x. Documentati
on:-thi
sisamanual thatgi
vei
nstr
ucti
onsonhowt oinst
alland
useadevice.Asystem wi
thoutdocumentat
ionmightbedi
ff
icul
ttoinst
alland
oper
ate.
x. Trai
ning:i
tisi
mpor
tantt
ogetacomput
erdev
icet
hatoneal
readyhas
knowledgeonhowtooperat
e.
 COMPUTERSOFTWARE
Forthehardwaretobeabletooperat
eaut omaticall
yinacomput ersyst
em, soft
wareor
programsmustbepr esent
.Theotherwordf orsoftwarei
sprogram.Itrefer
st oasetof
i
nstructi
onsthatahardwar
eusestopr ocessdat a.Computersoftwar
ecanbecl assi
fi
ed
accordi
ngto:Purposeandacqui
sit
ion.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofsof
twar
eaccor
dingt
opur
pose.
Undert
hiscat
egory,
soft
warearecategor
izedaccor
dingt
ohowt
heyar
eusedi
nto
syst
em sof
twareandappl
icat
ionsof
tware.
1.Sy
stem sof
twar
e
Thisref
erstosof
twarewhosemai ntaski
stomanaget hecomputersy
stem r
esour
ces.
System sof
twar
econtrolsandmaint
ainst
heoperati
onofthecomputerandit
sdevices.
Theyserveasanint
erfacebetweent
heuser,appl
i
cationsof
twar
eandt hehar
dware.
System sof
twar
eisdivi
dedinto:
i
. Oper
ati
ngsy
stems.
i
i
. Fi
rmwar
e.
i
i
i. Ut
il
it
ysof
twar
e
i
. Oper
ati
ngsy
stems.
Anoperat
ingsy
stem isasetofprogramswhichcoor
dinatesal
ltheact
ivi
ti
esi
na
computer
.Someexampl esofoperat
ingsy
stemsareWi ndows,Li
nux.MacOSand
Andr
oidamongothers.
i
i
. Fi
rmwar
e
Thi
sisasoft
wareembeddedi
nahardwar
edevi
ce.Fi
rmwar
eisper
manent
sof
twar
ethatispr
ogr
ammedintor
eadonlymemory(
RAM).
i
i
i. Util
i
tysoft
wareareincludedi
nmostoperat
ingsystems.Theyrefert
o
programsthatareconcernedwi
thr
outi
neorhousekeepingtaskssuchasfi
l
e
searchi
ng,copyi
ngf i
l
esandsoon.Uti
li
tysoftwareprov
idethefoll
owing
functi
ons:
i
. Theymanagecomputerfi
l
esbyr
enami
ng,
prot
ect
ingandcopy
ing
them amongot
hert
hings.
i
i
. Di
agnosi
ngcomput
erpr
obl
ems.
i
i
i. Theyr
epai
rcomput
erpr
obl
ems.
i
v. Assi
stt
hecomput
ersy
stem t
orunmor
eef
fi
cient
ly.
2.Appl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
e.
Appli
cati
onsoftwarear
eprogramswhichenabl
eauseraccompl
ishspeci
fi
ctasks.
Thesesoftwarecanbediv
idedint
ogeneral
purposeappl
i
cati
onsoft
wareandspeci
al
purposeappli
cati
onsof
tware.
i
. Gener
alpur
poseappl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
e.
Thesesoft
warearepur
chasedof
f-t
he-
shel
fbyuser
s.Theymeett
heneedsof
avari
etyofuser
s.
i
i
. Speci
alpur
poseappl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
e.
Thesesoft
wareper
for
mf unct
ionsspeci
fict
oauser .Theyar
ecreat
edon
demand,basedonaprobl
em thathasbeenident
if
iedbyacli
ent
.Theyar
e
al
soknownascustom soft
ware.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofsof
twar
eaccor
dingt
omet
hodofacqui
sit
ion.
I
nthi
scategor
y,sof
twarearecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
ohowt
heyar
eobt
ained.They
i
ncl
udethefol
l
owingtypes:
i
. St
andar
dsof
twar
e.
i
i
. Opensour
cesof
twar
e.
i
i
i. Shar
ewar
esof
twar
e.
i
v. User
-dev
eloped(
in-
housesof
twar
e).
v
. Fr
ee-
war
esof
twar
e.
v
i. Publ
i
csof
twar
e.

i
. St
andar
dsof
twar
e.
Thi
sisgeneral
purposesof
twarepur
chasedfrom t
hecompanydevel
opi
ngit
orf
rom i
tsvendor
s.Iti
scal
ledcommercial
-of
f-t
he-
shel
f(COTS)sof
twar
e.
i
i
. User
-dev
eloped(
in-
hose)sof
twar
e.
Thesear
especi
alpur
posesof
twar
edev
elopedi
n-housebyapr
ogr
ammer
.
i
i
i. Opensour
cesof
twar
e.
Sof
twar
edev
elopedf
orusermodi
fi
cat
ionandr
edi
str
ibut
ion.
i
v. Shar
ewar
e
Thi
siscopy
right
edsof
twar
edi
str
ibut
edatnocostf
orat
ri
alper
iod.
v
. Fr
ee-
war
e.
Acopy
right
edsof
twar
epr
ovi
dedatnocostbyani
ndi
vi
dual
/companyt
hat
 r
etai
nsal
lri
ght
stot
hesof
twar
e.
v
i. Publ
i
cdomai
nsof
twar
e
Asof
twar
edonat
edf
orpubl
i
cuseandhasnocopy
rightr
est
ri
cti
ons.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhensel
ect
ingsof
twar
e.
i
. Authenti
cit
y–Thi srefer
st otheor i
ginali
tyofthesof t
war e.Or i
ginalsoft
war e
areli
censedandsuppor tedbyt hedev eloper.Soft
war epiracyi sthecopying
anddistr
ibuti
onofthesof twarewi t
houtt hepermi ssi
onoft hedev el
oper.Iti
s
thef
tofintel
lect
ualpropertyandt hereforeaser i
ouscr i
me.Genui nesoftware
i
susuallyaccompani edbyt hesign©, whichmeanscopy rightedmat er
ial.
Copyri
ghtedmat eri
alisprotect
edbyl aw.
i
i
. User-
fr
iendl
i
ness–Auserf
ri
endl
ysof
twar
eisonethati
seasytoinst
all
and
use.Agoodsoft
war
eshoul
dhaveahelpf
aci
li
tyt
oassistauserwhenstuck.
i
i
i. Systemsrequi
rement
s–Thesearefact
orsonthehar
dwarethatareneeded
forthepr
ogram t
obeabl
etoruneff
ici
entl
yandeff
ect
ivel
y.Suchfact
ors
i
nclude:
a.Thespeedoft
hepr
ocessor
.
b.Thememor
ycapaci
ty
c.Thesi
zeofi
nter
nal
stor
ageav
ail
abl
e.
i
v. Port
abil
it
y–Thisistheabi
l
ityt
ot r
ansf
erprogr
amsfrom onecomput
ert
o
anot
her.Dat
aandinformat
ionaresai
dtobepor t
abl
eift
heycanbe
tr
ansfer
redf
rom onecomputert
oanother.
Note:mostoft
hef
actor
sunderhardwar
eli
kecost,
document
ati
on,userneedsand
ski
l
lsneededar
eal
lal
soappl
icabl
ewhenchoosingappr
opr
iat
esoft
war e.
 OPERATI
NGSYSTEMS
Themostimport
antsof
twarei
nacomput eri
stheoperat
ingsystem (OS)
.TheOSisa
l
argepr
ogram madeofmanysmallerpr
ogramsthatcont
rolthehardwareandmakes
comput
erseasi
ertooper
atebypeoplewhodonotunderstandprogramming.
Anoperati
ngsystem isasystem softwaret
hatcontr
olsandmanagesal
ltheoper
ati
ons
i
nt hecomputer
.Itprovi
desapl atfor
mf orl
oadi
ngofappli
cat
ionsof
twar
eandenables
thecomputerusertoeasil
yinteractwit
hthehardwar
e.
Someex amplesofoper
ati
ngsy
stemsi
ncl
ude:
Micr
osof
tDi
skOper
ati
ngSy
stem (
DOS)
,
windows,Li
nuxandUNIX.
Funct
ionsofanoper
ati
ngsy
stem.
Themai
nfunct
ionsofanoper
ati
ngsy
stem i
nacomput
eri
ncl
ude:
1.Jobandpr
ocessorschedul
i
ng.
Theoper
ati
ngsy
stem ar
rangest
hej
obst
obecar
ri
edoutbyt
hepr
ocessor
.
Theprocessorcannotper
for
mtwoormor etasksatthesamet i
me.Iti
stheworkofthe
operat
ingsyst
em todeter
minethewaytaskswil
lbeprocessedwit
houtthepr
ocessor
taki
ngalotofti
meonasi nglet
askattheexpenseoftheother
s.
2.Cont
rol
overhar
dwar
e.
Theprocessorhastoser
viceallt
heperipheraldevi
ceseff
ecti
vel
y.Theoper
ati
ng
syst
em control
sthi
sbyall
ocatingint
err
uptr equestnumber
swhichareusedbythese
devi
cestorequestf
oratt
entionfrom t
hepr ocessor.
Whentwoormor
edevicesr
equestf
orat
tenti
onatt
hesamet i
me,theOSchecksthe
pr
ior
it
yoft
hedev
iceandall
owstheonewithahi
gheri
nter
ruptnumbert
obeservedfi
rst
.
3.I
nput
/out
puthandl
i
ng.
Peri
pheraldevi
cesoperateataslowerspeedthantheprocessor.Theref
ore,
the
oper
ati
ngsy st
em hast ohandledataandinfor
mationfr
om thetimetheyareappli
edas
i
nput,t
ot heti
met heyareprocessedandthentakentotheoutputpoint.
4.Memor
ymanagement
.
Theoperati
ngsystem al
locatesandensureseachprogr
am hasenoughmemoryt
o
execut
eprocesses.I
talsoensuresthatoneprocessdoesnotusethememor
ythathas
beenall
ocatedtoanotherprocess.
5.Er
rorhandl
i
ng.
Theoper
ati
ngsyst
em cont
inual
l
ychecksthecomputersyst
em f
oranypossi
bleer
ror
s,
al
ert
stheuseroft
hesameandof f
ersanypossi
blecor
recti
vemeasur
es.
 6.Fi
l
ehandl
i
ng.
Theoperat
ingsystem al
lowstheuser
s’dataandprogr
am fil
estobemanaged
eff
ecti
vel
y.Ital
l
owst heorgani
zati
onoffi
lesi
ntodir
ector
iesandprov
idest
he
envi
ronmentforfi
l
est obecopied,
edi
tedandmov ed.
7.Sy
stem secur
it
y.
Theoper
ati
ngsyst
em contr
olsaccesstothecomput
ersy
stem byuser
s.I
tcanal
so
monit
ort
heusageofresour
cesbyv ari
oususers.
8.Communi
cat
ionwi
thcomput
eruser
.
Theoperati
ngsystem off
ersawayinwhi
chthecomputercommuni
cateswitht
heuser
thr
oughauserinterf
ace.Thispr
ovi
desawayinwhicht
hecomputeri
nteract
swit
hthe
userbydispl
ayi
nginformati
on.
Theoper
ati
ngsy
stem of
fer
stwot
ypesofuseri
nter
faces:
i
. Graphi
cal
useri
nter
face(GUI)
:-Inthi
sinter
face,i
nfor
mati
onisdispl
ayedon
t
hesamescreeninform ofpi
cturesusingwindows,andi
cons.
i
i
. Command-l
inei
nterf
ace(
CLI)
:-I
tpr
ovi
desani
nterf
acetocommuni
cat
ewi
th
thecomput
erbytypi
ngofcommandsandgi
vesfeedbackwi
tht
ext
s.
Ty
pesofoper
ati
ngsy
stems.
Di
ffer
entt
ypesofcomputersusedi
ff
erentoper
ati
ngsy
stems.Oper
ati
ngsy
stemscan
br
oadlybecat
egori
zedbasedon:
i
. Numberofuser
sasei
thersi
ngl
euserormul
tiuserOSs.
i
i
. Numberoft
asksasei
thermul
tit
askorsi
ngl
etaskOSs.
i
i
i. Userint
erf
aceasei
thercommandl
i
neorgr
aphi
cal
useri
nter
faceoper
ati
ng
syst
ems.
Ot
hercl
assesofoper
ati
ngsy
stemsar
e:
i
. Embeddedoperat
ingsy
stems:Al
socal
l
edrealt
imeoperati
ngsy
stems(
RTOS)
.Theyareusedtorunr
eal-
ti
meequi
pmentandmachinery
.
i
i
. St
and-al
oneOSs:TheseOssar
ecomplet
eanddonotneedt
oloadot
her
pr
ogramsexter
nal
ly.Theyr
unonPCs.
i
i
i. Networ
kOss:Thesesupportnet
wor ki
ngfaci
li
ti
eswherether
eisaclientanda
ser
vercomputer
.Aservercomputercentr
all
ystor
esdataandotherprograms
whi
leacli
entcomput
erloadsthedat aandoperat
ingpr
ogramsformt he
ser
ver.
 COMPUTERI
NSTALLATI
ON
Forthecomputersyst
em t
obeoperat
ional
,al
l t
hehar
dwarepar
tsmustbe
connect
edproperl
yandtheoper
ati
ngsystem andot
hersof
twar
einst
all
ed.
Component
sinst
all
ati
on.
Whenassemblingacomput er,i
tisimportantthatonehasall
thecabl
es,bot
hthe
poweranddatainter
face.I
tisalsoimportantthatoneknowsthedevi
cesthatneed
powerandthediff
erentdatacablesneededf orthem.Oneshoul
dalsobeableto
matcheachdevicetoitsport
.
Install
ati
onofoper at
ingsy st
em andappl i
cati
onsof twareistheprocessofcopy i
ng
andl oadingprogram fi
lesintotheharddisk.Thi
spr ocessensuresthatexecutable
fil
est hatarenecessaryfortherunningofthecomput erarecopi
edtot hehar
ddi sk.
Softwar einst
all
ati
onisdi f
ferentf
rom thenormal copypr ocedur
es,si
ncemuchofi t
i
saut omaticandtheuseri sonlyneededtopr ov
ideinf or
mat i
onorselectset
ti
ngs.
Bef
oret
heinstal
lat
ionofanoper
ati
ngsystem andot
hersof
twar
e,t
hecomput
er
mustmeettherequir
edhar
dwarespeci
fi
cati
ons.
Dur
ingtheinstal
l
ati
on,thestoragemediacontai
ningtheoper
atingsyst
em i
s
i
nsert
edintotheappropri
atediskdr
ive.Somedevicescandetectthedi
sk
aut
omatical
lyandstarti
nstal
lati
onsetupwizard.
Aft
erthest
artoftheoper at
ingsystem setupwizard,ani
mport
antdeci
sionthat
mustbemadei swhet hertoupgradecurrentoperati
ngsyst
em,ortoper
f or
m an
ent
ir
elynewinst
allat
ion.Thelatt
erisreferredt
oasacl eani
nst
all
.
Duringanupgrade,
thesetupwizar
drepl
acesexist
ingoper
ati
ngsy
stem fi
lesbut
preservespr
evi
oussett
ingsandappli
cat
ions.Al
thoughsomeappl
icat
ionsmightnot
functi
onproperl
yaft
eranupgrade.
Theset
upwi zardhel
pst
ogatheri
nfor
mationaboutt
heuserandt
hecomput
er
syst
em atev
er yst
ageaf
terwhi
chtheusercli
cksNext
.
Af
tergat
heri
ngtherequi
redi
nfor
mat
ion,
theset
upwi
zar
dcompl
etest
hei
nst
all
ati
on
whentheusercl
i
cksFini
sh.
Thewi zardt
hencopiestheappropri
atefi
lesint
ot heharddisk,checkst
hehar dware
andconf i
gur
estheinstal
lat
ion.Duri
nginstal
l
ationprocess,
t hecomputerrest
arts
severalti
mes.Whent hei
nstall
ati
oniscompl et
e,theusercanr eadi
lyl
ogont othe
operati
ngsystem,cr
eateuseraccountsandconf igur
eanyset ti
ngsavail
able.
 COMPUTERCARE
Comput ersar
eexpensiv
et oacquir
eandrepair
.Theyal soaredeli
cateandmust ,
therefore,behandledwi
thutmostcare.I
tisforthisreasonthatcer
tainprecaut
ionsand
practicesmustbeobserv edwhenhandli
ngthecomput ersandthei
rcomponent s.Thi
s
woul dhelptoav oi
ddamaget othecomputer
s, i
njurytotheuseraswel lastoprovi
dea
conduci veenvi
ronmentforteachi
ngandlear
ning.Someoft hesepracti
cesare
discussedbelow:
Car
eful
handl
i
ngoft
hekey
boar
dandt
hemouse.
Thekeyboar
dandthemouseshouldalwaysbeposit
ionedatthesamelevelonthe
bench.Thet
woshouldbeposi
ti
onedatacomf ort
ablelev
eltoensur
ethatthehands
andarmsarerel
axedtoav
oidwri
stinj
ury.Themouseshouldbeplacedonaclean
mousepadtopreventt
hemouseballf
rom coll
ect
ingdust.
Taki
ngcar
eoft
heopt
ical
disk.
Opt
ical
disksar
edel
i
cat
eandcaneasi
l
ygetdamagedandt
her
efor
eneedal
otofcar
e:
1.Donottouchtheshi
nysur
faceonwhi chdataar
esaved.Fi
ngerpr
int
sontheshiny
surf
aceareconsi
der
edasdirtandwil
l damaget
hedatawrit
tenonthatpar
t.
Inst
ead,
holdthedi
sksonl
yont heedgesorputafi
ngerint
hemi ddl
eholeand
usethethumbtoholdt
heedge.
2.Stor
ethedi
sksawayfr
om dustappr
opr
iat
elyi
nCDbanks.Dustcaneasi
l
y
damagethedi
sksur
faces.
3.Avoidcar
ryi
ngopt
ical
disksi
npocket
stoav
oidbr
eaki
ngt
hem.I
nst
ead,
useCD
bags.
4.Fr
equent
lycl
eanopt
ical
diskdr
ivesusi
ngl
enscl
eaner
sav
ail
abl
eint
hemar
ket
.
Car
eful
handl
i
ngofpr
int
ers.
Whenhandl
i
ngpr
int
ers,
thef
oll
owi
ngpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbef
oll
owed:
i
. Alwaysusetheori
ginali
nkorcartr
idges.Avoidr
efi
l
li
ngcartr
idgesorre-
inki
ng
ri
bbons.Thi
sistoav oi
dunnecessarybreakageoft
hepri
nterduetoleakage.
i
i
. Buyanduseonlyquali
typapersuit
ablef
orusewi thyourpr
int
ert
oav oi
d
paperj
am.Paperjammi ngl
eadstopapergettingstuckonthepr
int
erand
causi
ngthepr
intert
ostoptheprinti
ngprocess.
i
i
i. Whenconnect
ingt
heprint
ertot
hesyst
em uni
t,donotforcethecabl
e
connect
ort
otheportt
oavoidbr
eaki
ng/damagingthepins.
i
v. Alwaysfol
l
owi nst
ructi
onswheni
nser
ti
nganewcar
tri
dge,
tonerori
nkr
ibbon
toavoi
dmal f
uncti
oning.
Car
eful
handl
i
ngofcomput
ercabl
i
ng.
Onecaneasilyst
umbleonthewiresandcablesconnect
ingcomputercomponents,
causingdamagetothemachinesandinj
uri
estotheusers.Toav
oidanyaccident
s,the
fol
lowingpr
ecauti
onsshoul
dbef ol
lowed:
i
. Ensurethatt
hecabl
esarei
nsulat
ed.Iftheyar
enot,usetheinsul
ati
ngtapet
o
coverthewir
es.Thi
sist
oavoidanyfiresorevenel
ectr
icshocktotheuser
thatmaybecausedbythenakedwires.
i
i
. Setupt
hecomput
ersawayf
rom busypat
hsint
her
oom andf
ast
ent
he
cabl
esal
ongt
hewall
sbehi
ndthecomputer.
Keepi
ngdustawayf
rom t
hecomput
ers.
Dustpart
icl
escanscratchandther
efor
edest
royt
hemov abl
epart
softhecomputer
resul
ti
ngtolossofdata.Toavoi
dsuchevent
ual
it
ies,
thefol
l
owingpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
d
beobserved:
i
. Coverthecomputer
swithplast
icdustcover
s,whennoti
nuse.Plasti
cis
pref
err
edov erot
hermater
ial
sbecauseitdoesnotabsor
bdust,
instead,
the
dustsett
lesonit
ssurf
ace.
i
i
. Keept
hecomputerr
oom spot
lessl
ycleanatal
lti
mes.Fi
tther
oom wi
th
car
pet
swherepossi
bleandcl
eanitregul
arl
y.
i
i
i. Remov
eshoeswhenget
ti
ngi
ntot
hecomput
err
oom t
oav
oidcar
ryi
ngdust
i
nsi
de.
i
v. Cl
eanthecomputerpart
sregul
arl
ywit
halcohol
-basedcl
eani
ngagent
s.
Al
coholdoesnotcor
rodethepart
sofacomputer.
v
. Placedoormatsatt
hedoort
oremov
edustf
rom t
hef
eetandav
oidcar
ryi
ng
them i
ntother
oom.
v
i. Fi
tcur
tainsonthewi
ndowsandaddacur
tai
nnett
oreducedustent
ryi
ntot
he
computerroom.
v
ii
. Useadustbl
owertoremovedustf
rom t
hei
nsi
deandout
sideoft
he
comput
erpar
tsregul
arl
y.

Heal
thmat
ter
s.
Computer
swhenusedimpr
oper
lycancauseinj
uri
esandotherheal
thprobl
emstothe
user
s.Someoft
heprobl
emsandhowt heyoccurandpr
eventedaredi
scussedbel
ow:
i
. Repet
it
ivest
rai
ninj
uri
es.
Repeti
ti
vest
rai
n(st
ress)i
njur
ies(RSI
s)ar
esever
alwri
st,hand,ar
m andnecki
njur
ies
resul
ti
ngwhenmusclegroupsarefor
cedthr
oughfast
,repet
it
ivemoti
ons.
RSIscoveranumberofdi sorders.Some, suchasmusclestrai
nandt endi ni
ti
sare
painf
ulbutusual
lynotcrippl
ing.Thesei nj
uri
esoftencausedbyhit
ti
ngt hekey st
oohar d,
maybecur edbyrest,anti
-i
nfl
ammat or
ymedi cat
ionandchangesinty pingtechniques.
Howev er
,car
paltunnelsyndromei sdisabli
ngandof t
enrequir
essurger y.Carpal
tunnel
syndrome(CTS)consistsofadebi li
tat
ingcondit
ioncausedbypressur eont hemedi an
nerveint
hewr i
st,pr
oducingdamageandt her
ebypaintonervesandt endonsi nthe
hands.
i
i
. Ey
est
rai
nandheadaches.
Visi
onpr oblemsareactuall
ymor ecommont hanRSIpr obl
emsamongcomput erusers.
Comput erscompel peopletousethei
reyesatcl oserangef oral
ongtime.However,our
eyeswer emadet oseemostef fi
cient
lyatadi st
ance.Itisnotsurpr
isi
ng,t
hen,
that
peopledev elopwhatiscall
edComput erVi
sionSy ndr
ome( CVS).
CVSconsi st
sofeyestrain,headaches,doublevi
sionandot herproblemscausedby
i
mpr operuseofcomput erdi
splayscreens.By‘i
mpr operuse’
,wemeannotonl ystari
ng
atthescreenforalongt imefortoolongbutalsof ail
ingtoemployt het
echnologyasit
shouldbeempl oy
ed.Thi sincl
udesallowingfaul
tylighti
ngandscr eengl
are,andusing
screenswithpoorresoluti
on.
i
i
i. Backandneckpai
ns.
Manypeopleuseimpr
operchai
rsorposi
tionkeyboardsanddisplayscr
eensinimproper
waysleadi
ngtobackandneckpai
ns.All
kindsofadjustabl
e,special
purposefur
nit
ure
andequipmentar
eavail
abl
etoavoi
dordiminishsuchmal adi
es.
i
v. El
ect
romagnet
icf
iel
def
fect
s.
Manydevi
cesrel
atedtocomputersandcommuni cati
ongadget
sgener
atel
ow-l
evel
el
ect
romagneti
cfi
eldemissi
ons.Elect
romagnet
icfiel
demissi
ons(
EMFs)arewavesof
el
ect
ri
cenergyandmagneticener
gy .
Thereisnoclearevi
dencethatweakEMFssuchast hoseusedf orcel
lularphones,
causecancer.Sti
l
l,t
hehandheldcel
lul
arphonesdoputt hetransmitt
ernex ttotheuser
s’
head.Thi
scausessomeheal t
hprof
essionals'concernabouttheeffectsofradiowaves
enter
ingthebrai
nast heyseekoutt
henear estcell
ulart
ransmitter
.
Thebestthingtodoist
oexerciseprudentav
oidance.Thatis,
weshouldtake
precaut
ionswhentheyareavail
abl
e.Thus,wecant akestepstoputsomedist
ance
(arm’sl
ength)bet
weenourselv
esandcomput ers.
v
. Noi
se.
Thechat t
erofi mpactprint
ersorhum offansi
ncomputerpoweruni
tscanbe
psychologicall
ystressf
ultosomepeople.Sound-
muffl
i
ngcoversareavai
l
ablefor
i
mpactpr inters.Somesy st
em uni
tsmayal sobepl
acedonthefl
oorunderthedeskt
o
minimisenoi seint
erfer
encefrom f
ans.
Er
gonomi
cs
Pr
evi
ouslyworker
shadtofitthemsel
vestothej
obenvi
ronment.However,heal
thand
pr
oduct
ivi
tyi
ssueshavespurredthedev
elopmentofanewfiel
dcall
edergonomics;t
hat
i
sconcer
nedwi t
hfit
ti
ngthejobenvir
onmenttothewor
ker.
Ergonomicsisthestudyofthephysi
cal
relati
onshipsbetweenpeopleandthei
rwork
envir
onment.Iti
sconcernedwitht
hedesigningofhardwareandsof t
ware,aswell
as
offi
cefur
nit
ure,thati
slessstr
essf
ulandmor ecomfort
abletouse,andthatbl
ends
mor esmoothlywithaperson’
sbodyoractions.
Iti
simportantt
osetupcomput erworkar
eai nanergonomi
cway .Oneshouldsitwit
h
bothfeetonthefl
oor,
andthighsatri
ghtanglestothebody.Thechairshoul
dbe
adj
ustableandsupportt
helowerback.Forearmsshouldbeparal
lel
tot hefl
oorandthe
headlooksdownstrai
ghttothescreen.
Toav oi
dRSIs,keepwri
stsst
raightandhandsrel
ax edwhilety
ping.I
nsteadofput t
ing
thekeyboardontopofthedesk,putitonalowtableorinakey boar
ddr awerunderthe
desk.Someex pert
sal
sosuggestusingapadded, adjust
ablewristr
estwhichattaches
tothekeyboard.
Variouski
ndsofergonomickeyboardsareal
soav ai
l
abl
e,suchasthosethatar
ehinged
i
nt hemiddle.Wi
ndowsandl i
ghtsshouldnotthr
owaglareonthescreenanduncovered
windowsshouldnotframethecomput erscr
een.
 DATAPROCESSI
NG.
I
nthebegi
nni
ngofthecourse,
theter
msdataandinf
ormat
ionweredi
scussed.
I
nfor
mati
onusual
l
yimpliesdatat
hatisor
gani
sedandmeaningf
ult
otheenduser.
Data,t
heref
ore,
refer
stotherawmateri
alst
hataret
ransf
ormedint
oinfor
mation
thr
oughdataprocessi
ng.Dat
aprocessi
ngrefer
stoall
theact
ionsandact
ivi
ti
esthatar
e
carr
iedoutondatatoconver
titi
ntoi
nfor
mation.
Dat
apr
ocessi
ngcy
cle.
Dataisprocessedusi ngorderl
ystepst
hatbeginatthedatacollecti
onstageandendat
theoutputstageasi nfor
mat i
on.However
,becauseitispossibl
et oinputi
nfor
mati
onat
anystageofpr ocessing,dat
aprocessi
ngisusuall
yil
lust
ratedasacy cl
eshownbelow:

Dat
aInput

Pr
ocessi
ng
Dat
aCol
l
ect
ion

Out
put

1.Dat
acol
l
ect
ion
Thi
sist
hest
agewher
edat
aar
eident
if
ied,
gat
her
ed,
andt
henpr
epar
edf
ori
nput
.
Dat
amaybecol
l
ect
edusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods:
manual
andel
ect
roni
cmet
hods.
Manual
met
hods.
I
nt hesemet hods,datacol
lect
ioni
scarri
edoutbyphysi
call
yidenti
fyi
ngandstudy
ing
thedata,thedataisthenrecor
dedusingpenandpaper.Thesemet hodsi
ncl
ude
observat
ion,int
erv
iews,questi
onnai
resandstudyofexi
sti
ngtexts.
El
ect
roni
cmet
hods.
Inthesemet hods,el
ectr
onicdevi
cesareusedtocoll
ectdataunderthecontr
olofsome
software.Thedevicesusedinthi
smet hodaresuchasdatalogger
sanddirectdat
a
capturedevicesli
kescannersandreaders.
 2.Dat
ainput
.
Att
hisstage,
coll
ect
eddat
aarefedint
othecomput
erf
orpr
ocessi
ng.Thev
ari
ousi
nput
dev
icesalr
eadyseenar
eusedfort
hispur
pose.
3.Pr
ocessi
ng.
Thei
nputisnowconver
tedi
ntomeani
ngfulout
put.Thecomput
erprocessorf
oll
ows
i
nstr
ucti
onscont
ainedi
nacomputerprogr
am toprocesst
hedata.
4.Out
put
.
Atthi
sstage,
theprocesseddat
aispr
esent
edt
otheuser
.Themaj
orf
ormsofout
put
ar
esoftcopyandhardcopy.
Dat
apr
ocessi
ngmodes.
Thesear
eappr
oachesusedbycomput
erst
opr
ocessdat
a.Pr
ocessi
ngmodesi
ncl
ude:
1.On-
li
nepr
ocessi
ng
Inthi
sprocessi
ngmode, dat
aistakentotheprocessi
ngstageimmediatel
yiti
senter
ed
andtheoutputav ai
l
ed.Theprocessorisconnect
eddirectl
ytothei
nput/
outputuni
ts
enabl
ingdir
ectinteract
ionbet
weent heuserandthesystem.Theuseri
sabletoaccess
thestor
eddatat ovieworupdateitatanyti
me.
Anexampleofanonl
inedat
aprocessingmodei
sanairl
i
nereser
vati
onsyst
em wher
e
var
iousagent
sareal
waysindi
rectaccesst
othecent
ral
reser
vat
iondat
abase.
2.Di
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
ng.
I
nt hi
smode, thedat atobeprocessedissharedamongmanydi fferentprocessing
point
susual l
yl ocatedatdif
fer
entgeographicalareasbutli
nkedbyanet wor k.The
dif
ferentprocessingpointscanoperateindependentlyofeachot her.Thismodei sideal
forsystemst hathav ehugeamount sofdatawhi chcannotbepr ocessedatacent r
al
point
.Anexampl eofsuchamodei sabankwi thmanybr anches, eachbranchdoesi ts
processingandt henf or
wardstheresult
stot heheadquarter
sf orf i
nalprocessing.
3.Ti
meshar
ingpr
ocessi
ng.
Inthi
smode, manyuser shaveaccesstoacentral
isedcomput erapparent
lyatt
hesame
ti
me.Eachuseri sallocatedati
mesl i
ce,whichi
sabr i
efpieceoft i
mewhenaccesst o
thecentr
alprocessinguni t(
CPU)isavai
led.Thi
sti
mesl i
cei sswitchedbetweenthe
usersunti
ltheyallprocessthei
rdata.Totheuser,
howev er,
oneappear stobehav i
ng
soleaccesstotheCPU.
4.Bat
chpr
ocessi
ng
I
nthi
smode, dat
aisgather
edf oraperi
odofti
methenpr
ocessedasagr oup(
batch)at
acer
tai
nint
ervaloft
imewithoutint
err
upti
on.Thet
askst
obepr ocessedar
efi
rst
arr
angedinabatchqueue.Oncet
heprocessi
ngbeginsther
eisnointer
acti
onbetween
theuserandthesyst
em.Thismodeisi
dealforsy
stemswhoser esul
tsofprocessi
ng
arenotrequi
redi
mmediatel
ysuchasemployees’
payrol
landstudent
s’academicrepor
t
for
ms.
5.Mul
ti
processi
ng.
I
nt hi
smodeofpr ocessing,
twoormor eprocessor
sinthesamecomput erareusedt
o
processataskthathasbeensub-di
videdi
ntosmal l
eruni
tsbytheoper
atingsyst
em.
Thesetasksarethenprocessedbythedif
ferentpr
ocessor
ssimult
aneously.
6.Mul
ti
-pr
ogr
ammi
ng.
Thismodei salsoknownasmulti
-t
aski
nganditiswherebymorethanonetaskor
program i
sexecutedappar
entl
yatthesametime.Af
terrecei
vi
ngthetasks,
the
operati
ngsystem assi
gnsati
meslicetoeachoneofthem anddet
ermineswhicht
ask
i
st obegivenpr i
ori
tyf
orpr
ocessi
ng.
7.I
nter
act
ivepr
ocessi
ng.
Inthi
smode, dataisprocessedasiti
sreceiv
edinthesy stem.Aft
eriti
sprocessed,
an
i
mmedi at
eoutputisgeneratedpr
ompt i
ngtheusertorespondtotheoutput.An
exampl eofanint
eract
ivesy st
em i
splayi
ngacomput ergame, wherethepl
ayeris
expectedtorespondtov ar
iouspromptstocont
inueplaying.
8. Real
-t
imepr
ocessi
ng.
Inthismode,datai
nputispr ocessedasitisrecei
vedandtheoutputmadeav ai
lable
i
mmedi at
elyt
oinfl
uencet heongoingacti
vity
.Thismodeisidealformissi
oncrit
ical
systemssuchascomput ersystemsmoni t
oringpati
ent
sinahospi t
al’
sint
ensiv
ecar e
unit(I
CU)wherereadingsf r
om thepati
ents’condi
ti
onsareprocessedandtheresults
respondedtoimmediately.
9.Of
f-
li
nepr
ocessi
ng.
I
nthi
smode,
dat
aaboutat
ransact
ioni
spr
ocessedal
ongt
imeaf
terbei
ngcapt
ured.

Dat
ast
orage.
Dat
ast
oragehi
erar
chy
.
Dat
acanbegr oupedint
oahi er
archyofcategori
es,eachincr
easi
ngl
ymorecomplex.
Thedatast
oragehier
archyconsist
softhelevel
sofdat astor
edinacomput
er:bi
ts,
byt
es(char
acter
),f
iel
ds,recor
ds,fi
lesanddatabases.
Computer
s,wehav esai
darebasedont hepri
nci
plet
hatelectr
ici
tymaybeonorof f
.
Thusi
ndiv
iduali
temsofdataarerepresent
edbythebi
ts0f oroffand1foron.Bi
tsand
byt
esarethebui
ldi
ngblocksf
orrepresenti
ngdat
a,whetheriti
sbeingpr
ocessed,st
ored
ortel
ecommunicat
ed.Thecomput erdeal
swit
hthebit
sandby
tes,
you,
howev
er,
wil
l
dealwit
hchar
acter
s,fi
elds,
recor
ds, f
il
esanddat
abases.
1.Char
act
ers.
Acharact
eri
sthesmal
l
estcomponentofdat
a.I
tconsi
stsofl
ett
ers,
number
sor
speci
alsy
mbols.
2.Fi
eld.
Thi
sisacomponentofdatamadeupofagroupofcharact
ers.Afiel
ddescri
besthe
at
tri
buteoft
hedat
aitem hel
d.Forex
ampl
e,astudent
’sname,classorhi
s/herdate
ofbi
rth.
3.Recor
d.
Thi
sfi
lecomponenti
smadeupofagr
oupoff
iel
dst
hatdescr
ibeani
tem ofdat
a
hel
d.
4.Dat
abase.
Thi
sisanor
gani
sedcol
l
ect
ionofst
ruct
uredandr
elat
eddat
ahel
dinacomput
er.
5.Fi
l
e.
Thi
sisagr
oupofr
elat
edr
ecor
dsst
oredi
nasecondar
yst
oragemedi
a.
Fi
l
eor
gani
sat
ionandaccessmet
hods.
Thisref
erstothewayi nwhichrecordsarearrangedandaccessedinaf i
leina
secondarystor
agemedi a.Themet hodusedf orarr
angingrecor
dsdeter
mi nestheway
dataareaccessed.Therearefourmet hodsoffil
eorganisat
ion/
access,
namel y
:
sequenti
al,
seri
al,i
ndexedsequentialandrandom/ di
rect.
1.Sequent
ial
fil
eor
gani
sat
ion/access.
Dataisst or
edandr et
ri
evedinasequence,thati
s,i
nasor tedor derusingakeyf i
eld.
Thesor tordercaneit
herbeascendingordescendi
ng.Ther ecordsar eaccessedby
readi
ngt hefil
efrom t
hefir
strecor
d,oneafteranot
her,unti
leit
hert heendoft hefil
eor
therecordrequiredi
sfound.Tapestoragef
allsi
nthiscategory.Thismet hodisslow.
2.Ser
ial
fil
eor
gani
sat
ion.
Inthi
smethod,recordsar
est
oredi
ntheor
deri
nwhi
cht
heyoccur
.Ther
ecor
dsar
e
accessedsequenti
all
y.
3.Random/di
rectf
il
eor
gani
sat
ion.
Inthi
smethod,recor
dsarestor
edinnoparti
cul
arorder
.Ther ecor
dsareloadedtoa
diskbyest
abl
ishingadi
rectr
elat
ionshi
pbetweenauniquedat ai
dent
ifi
erknownast he
keyfi
eldandi
tsaddressonthefil
e.Thi
sisnormal
lydoneusingamet hodoralgori
thm
thatconver
tsthekeyfiel
dtoaphy si
caldiskaddr
ess.Thi
srelat
ionshi
pisalsousedf
or
retr
iev
aloftherecordsdi
rect
ly.Thismet hodisusedinst
oragedev i
cessuchasopti
cal
disks,
magneticdisksandsoli
dst atedevices.
4.I
ndexedsequent
ial
fil
eor
gani
sat
ion/access.
Themet
hodcombinessequent
ial
fil
eor
gani
sat
ionwi
tht
hepossi
bil
i
tyofdi
rectaccess
usi
ngt
hekeyfi
eld.
Therecor
dsar eblockedbeforebei
ngwrit
tent
odisk.Toaccessarecord,posi
ti
on,the
near
estposit
ionoft herecor
disdeter
minedbycompari
ngthekeyfiel
doft herecor
dto
thei
ndex.Thecomput ert
hengoesdir
ectl
ytother
ecordortothenearestposi
tiont
hen
sear
chesseri
ally
.
Ty
pesoff
il
es.
Therearemanyt
ypesoff
il
esbutper
hapst
het
wopr
inci
pal
onesar
epr
ogr
am f
il
esand
datafi
l
es.
Pr
ogr
am f
il
es.
Thesear ethefil
escontainingsoft
war einstr
ucti
ons.Themostimportantaresource
program fi
l
esandex ecutablef
il
es.Sour ceprogr
am fil
escont
aincomputerinstr
ucti
ons
i
nt heorigi
nalform writ
tenbythepr ogrammer .Mostofthesourcepr
ogram fil
eshave
theextensi
onoft helanguagei nwhicht heyarewri
ttene.
g.basforBASIC,Pasfor
Pascalorjavforjava.
Fortheprocessortousesourceprogram i
nst
ruct
ions,
theymustbet
ransl
atedi
ntoan
execut
ablefil
ebyr unningi
te.
g.wheny ousel
ectanappli
cat
ionpr
ogr
am li
keMicrosof
t
wordfrom theon-screenmenuandr unit
.
Dat
afi
l
es
Thesear
ethef
il
est
hatcont
aindat
a.Dat
afi
l
esar
etobeact
eduponbypr
ogr
am f
il
es.
Ty
pesofdat
afi
l
es.
Dat
afi
lesar
eidenti
fiedbyther
oletheyplayindat
aprocessing.Thecommont
ypesof
dat
afi
l
esaretransacti
on,r
epor
t,sort
,back-upandref
erence.
1.Mast
erf
il
es.
Thesefi
lescont
ainper
manentorsemi
-per
manentdat
a.Semi
-per
manentdat
ais
usual
lyupdat
edperi
odical
l
y.
2.Tr
ansact
ionf
il
es.
Alsoknownasmov ementfi
les.Thesef
il
escont
ainstempor
arydat
athati
s
generat
edduringpr
ocessi
ng.Thedatahel
dintr
ansacti
onfi
l
esisusedtoupdat
ethe
masterfi
les.
3.Sor
tfi
l
es.
Thisf
il
econtainsrecordsarr
angedinapr edet
ermi
nedorder.Sort
ingi
snor
mally
donesoastohel pwithfurt
herprocessi
nge.g.atr
ansact
ionfil
emaybesorted
accor
dingt
ot hequantiti
esbefor
eupdatingthemasterfi
l
e.
4.Repor
tfi
l
e.
Thi
stypeoffil
econtainsr
ecor
dsgenerat
edafterprocessi
ng.Forexampl
e,agroup
oftr
ansacti
onsthatoccur
redwit
hinaspeci
fi
cperiodmaybeext ract
edandstoredi
n
arepor
tfil
e.
5.Backupf
il
es.
Thesefi
lescontai
ncopiesofdataandinf
ormati
oni
nacomput erst
oredi
nan
exter
nalsecondar
ystor
agedev i
ce.Theybecomeanal
ter
nat
ivesourceofdat
ain
casetheorigi
nalf
il
esgetlostorar
edamaged.
6.Ref
erencef
il
es.
Thesearefi
lest
hatcont
aininf
ormat
ionordatathatisusedforpur
posesoflooki
ng
upinf
ormati
on.Forexample,i
nabookshop,
ar ef
erencefil
emaycontainpr
icesof
eachtypeofbook.
Ot
hert
ypesoff
il
es.
i
. Appl
i
cat
ionf
il
es.
Thesear
efi
lesusedandcreat
edusingappl
icat
ionprograms.Thei
r
ext
ensi
onsarepre-
def
inedbythesuppor
ti
ngapplicat
ion.
i
i
. Sy
stem f
il
es.
Thesear efi
lesthatassistt
heoperati
ngsyst
em inrunningit
soper at
ions.The
comput ermanagesi t
ssy st
em fi
l
esandusuallystor
est hem i
nar ootfolder
l
abelleddependingont hetypeoftheoper
ati
ngsy st
em andf i
leconfi
gurat i
on.
System fi
lesarecreatedandmaintai
nedbytheoper ati
ngsystem andare
necessaryforthesystem toper
formitsmanyf unct
ions.Theyhavethe. sys
extensi
on.
i
i
i. Textf
il
es.
Thesearetext
-onl
yfi
lest
hatcont
ainnogr
aphi
csandnof
ormat
ti
ngi
.e.pl
ain
text
.Theyhavethe.t
xtext
ensi
on.
i
v. I
magef
il
es.
Thesearefi
lesofdi
git
izedgraphi
cssuchaspict
uresorphot
ogr
aphs.They
arei
ndicat
edbysuchex tensi
onsas.bmp,.
gif
,.j
pgand.j
peg
v
. Audi
ofi
l
es
 Thesefi
l
escont
aindi
git
izedsound.Theyhav
eext
ensi
onssuchas.
wav
,.mi
d
and.mp3.
v
i. Vi
deof
il
es.
Thesear
efi
l
esofmov
ingpi
ctur
es.Commonext
ensi
onsar
e.av
i,.
fl
iand.
mp4.
v
ii
. Webf
il
es.
Thesearef
il
escar
ri
edov
ert
heWor
ldWi
deWeb.Thei
rext
ensi
onsi
ncl
ude
.ht
ml and.
xml.

Di
rect
oryandf
il
emanagement
.
Theoper
ati
ngsystem hasaf
il
ingsyst
em thatusesfi
lenames,
fol
der
s(di
rect
ori
es)and
dri
vel
ett
erstokeeptr
ackoft
hef i
l
esinthecomput er
.
Fil
esaregiv
ennamesknownasf i
l
enames.Fi
lenameshaveex t
ensi
onnames.These
extensi
onnamesofupt othr
eelet
ter
sareaddedafteraperi
odfol
lowi
ngthefi
l
ename.
Extensi
onsareusual
l
yinsert
edautomat
ical
l
ybyt heprogr
ams.
Di
rect
ori
es/
fol
der
s.
Adirectoryalsocall
edaf ol
derandisastorageplacef orfil
esint hestoragemedia.Fi
les
onadi skgoi ntodif
ferentf
older
s.Thesefol
ders/dir
ectoriesareor ganisedinast
ructure.
I
nthisst r
ucture,wehav earootdir
ector
y(parentfol
der )
,directory/f
older,
andsub
di
rectori
es/folders.Thedir
ectori
esandthesubdirectori
esal lstartattheroot
.

Par
ent
Fol
der

Fol
der Fol
de

Sub- Sub- Sub-

Sub-
Dr
ive/l
ett
ers.
Personalcomput
ersmostpr
obabl
yhavemor
ethanonest
oragedev
ices.Eachdev
icei
s
assignedafol
derl
abel
l
edbyalett
er.
Fi
l
especi
fi
cat
ionorpat
h.
 Toidenti
fyaparti
cularfi
le,t
heoperat
ingsystem usesaf
il
especif
icati
onorpathwhi
ch
speci
fi
est hesequenceofdirect
ionst
hecomput ermustfol
lowtolocatet
hefil
e.The
sequenceofthedirector
iesandfil
esareseparat
edbyabackslash(\)
.Anexampleofa
fi
lepathi
sasf oll
ows.
C:
\mydocument
s\papers\I
CTnot
es.
doc

Ext
ensi
o
n

Fi
l
ename

Parent
di
rector
y Dir
ect
ory Sub-
/Folder
. / di
rect
ory
Fol
der

FUNCTI
ONSOFFI
LESANDFOLDERS
i
. St
orageofdat
a.
Fi
l
esarebasi
cal
lyusedtostor
erel
ateddat
a.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oknowt
het
ypeofdat
a
av
ail
abl
esothatrel
atedf
il
esarekeptt
oget
her.
i
i
. Or
gani
sat
ionofi
nfor
mat
ion
Therearet
womainappr
oachest
oor gani
singdat
afi
les.Theycanbe
organi
sedbyt
hei
rfi
l
eextensi
onoraccordi
ngtothei
rworkproject
s.
Mani
pul
ati
ngf
il
esandf
older
s.
1. Vi
ewi
ngf
il
esanddi
rect
ori
es.
Wi
ndowsdi
spl
ayst
hef
il
est
ruct
ureei
theraswi
ndowsf
il
eex
plor
erormycomput
er.
a.Fi
l
eexpl
orer
.
Thefil
eexplor
erpr
ov i
desatwopanewi ndowforvi
ewi
ngfi
lesandthefol
der
str
uctur
e.Ital
lowstheusertov
iewasmanyf older
sandsubfolder
sby
expandi
ngandcoll
apsingthem,wi
thouttoggl
i
ngbackandfort
hbetweennew
windows.
Thelefthandpanei nwindowsexpl
orershowsaf ullvi
ewofallthefol
der
sinthe
comput er
’sharddri
ve.Cli
cki
ngtheplussign(+)besidethefol
dernames
expandsanddi spl
aysthesit
esandaddi t
ional
sub-fol
dersinsi
deit
.Cli
cki
ngthe
minus(-)signcoll
apsesallt
hesub-
foldersandfi
les.
 b.Mycomput
er.
Mycomputerpr
ovi
desasi
mpler,onepanevi
ewofparentf
older
sandsubf
older
s.
Whil
eusi
ngmycomputer,
theuserisabl
etoseeonl
ythecontent
soft
he
sel
ect
edfol
der.
Tov i
ewf ol
dersabovet
hesecur
rent
lydi
splay
ed,cli
ckt
heupbutt
on.Cli
cki
ngona
fol
derdispl
ayedonthewindowchangesthewindowdi
spl
aytoonlyt
hecontent
s
ofthechosenf ol
der
.

2.Cr
eat
ingf
older
s.
Thef i
rststepi ncreati
ngf ol
dersistoensurethereisawor ksheetplancont
aini
ngt he
namesandor gani
sationoft hefolder
sthatmakeupt hef i
l
emanagementpl an.This
helpsinknowi ngwher et osavet hework.Cr
eatingafolderforone’sworkprovidesa
fasteraccesst othewor k.Tocr eateanewfolderinsi
demydocument susi
ngfile
explorer
,dot hefollowing”
i
. Cl
i
ckt
hest
artbut
ton,
thenpr
ogr
ams,
thenf
il
eexpl
orer
.
i
i
. Cli
ckonmydocument
sinthefolderli
stboxtosel
ecti
t.Thecontentsofmy
document
swil
lbedi
spl
ayedintherighthandpaneoff
ileexpl
orer.
i
i
i. Cl
i
ckt
hef
il
emenu;
sel
ectnew,
thenf
older
.
i
v. Afolderappear
swithanameNewFol derhighl
i
ghted.Typethedesir
edname
torepl
acethatone,
thenpressent
erkey .Oryoucanrightcl
i
ckont hefol
der
andselectther
enameoptionfr
om thepop-upmenut hatappears.Typet
he
fol
dersnameov ert
hehighl
ight
edtext
.
v
. Repeatst
eps(
ii
i)and(
iv)abov
etocr
eat
eot
hernewf
older
s.
Creat
inganewfolderusingmycomput eri
sdonebyfoll
owingtheabov
estepsex
cept
thatt
heinst
ruct
ionsforstep(
i)changeto:
from t
hedesktopsdoubl
ecl
ickmycomput
er
i
con.
3.Sel
ect
ingf
il
esandf
older
s.
Tosel ectaf
il
eint
hefil
eexpl
orer,cl
ickonceonthefil
e,sothati
tishighl
i
ghted.To
selectmanyfil
eswhi
charenotadjacenttoeachother
,holddownt hecontr
olkeywhi
l
e
cl
ickingoneachfi
let
obeselected.
Toselectmult
iplefi
l
esadjacenttoeachot her,cli
ckont hefir
stf
il
e,thenholddownt he
shi
ftkeyandclickonthelastfi
l
e,thenholddownt heshif
tkeyandclickonthelastf
ile
tobeselect
ed.Toselectallt
hefil
esi nafolder,chooseselectal
lfr
om t heedi
tmenuor
usethekeysCtrl+Asimul t
aneously.Af
terselectingthefil
estoputinaf ol
der
,theycan
bemov edorcopied.
 4.Mov
ingandcopy
ingf
il
es
Movingofafil
eistherelocat
ionofthesel
ect
edfil
etoanewlocat
ionwi
thoutl
eav
inga
copyatthesourcel
ocati
on.Copyingist
hedupli
cat
ionofaf
il
ewhichmeansacopy
remainsatt
hesourcelocati
on.
Oncefil
esar
esel
ect
ed,t
heycanbemov edorcopi
edt
oanyfol
derbyuseofmenus,
keyboar
dcommandsordraganddrop.Tocopyormovesel
ect
edfil
estoanot
herfol
der
onthemenubardothef
oll
owing:
i
. Cl
i
ckt
heedi
tmenut
henchoose‘
copy
’tocopyorcutt
omov
e.
i
i
. Onthel
eftpanesel
ectt
hef
olderwher
efi
l
esar
etobecopi
ed.Choosepast
e
fr
om t
heeditmenu.
Tomov
esel
ect
edf
il
est
oanot
herf
olderwi
tht
hekey
boar
dcommands,
dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Pr
esst
heCt
rl+Ckey
stocopyort
heCt
rl+Xkey
stocuthef
il
es.
i
i
. Ontheleftpane,
sel
ectthef
olderwher
ethef
il
esar
etobecopi
edormov
ed
andpressthekeysCtr
l+Vtopaste.
Tomovesel
ectedf
il
estoanot
herfol
derbyusingdraganddrop,
cli
ckont
hefil
esand
dr
agt
heselect
edfi
lest
othechosendesti
nat
ionthenrel
easethemousebut
ton.
Dr
aggi
nganddr
oppi
ngfi
l
esonthesamedr i
vemovest
hef i
l
estot
henewl
ocat
ionwhi
l
e
dr
aggi
nganddr
oppi
ngondi
ff
erentdr
ivescr
eat
esadupl
icate.
5.Sav
ingdat
a.
Mostappli
cat
ionsautomatical
l
ychoosealocati
onf ordocument
s.Forex ample,
windowsoper
atingsystem aut
omati
cal
lysavesfil
esonmydocument sfolderI
fanother
l
ocationi
snotchosen.Whensav i
ngafi
leforthefir
sttime,onei
spresentedadialog
boxforsel
ect
ingthelocat
ionandnameoft hefi
le.
Tosav
eaf
il
e,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Sel
ectt
he‘
fi
le’
opt
ionandt
hen‘
sav
eas’
.Adi
alogueboxi
sthendi
spl
ayed.
i
i
. Sel
ectthelocat
iont
osav
ethef
il
efr
om t
hedr
opdownbut
tonnex
ttot
hesav
e
i
noption.
i
i
i. Ty
pet
hef
il
enamei
nthe‘
fi
lename’
fiel
dpr
ovi
ded.
i
v. Cl
i
ckt
hesav
ebut
tonandt
hedocumentget
ssav
edi
nthesel
ect
edl
ocat
ion.
6.Renami
ngf
il
esandf
older
s.
Tor
enameaf
il
eorf
older
,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Sel
ectt
hef
il
eorf
older
.
 i
i
. Choose‘
rename’
from t
hef
il
emenu,
orr
ightcl
i
ckf
rom t
hepopupmenu.
i
i
i. Theor
igi
nal
namewi
l
lbehi
ghl
i
ght
edandsur
roundedbyabox
.
i
v. Ty
pet
henewnameov
ert
heol
dname,
thenpr
esst
heent
erkey
.
7.Del
eti
ngf
il
esandf
older
ssaf
ely
.
Mostoperati
ngsyst
emsusuallyprot
ectfi
lesdeletedf
rom t
heharddiskbyplaci
ngthem
i
na‘recy
clebin’
.Thesefi
lesr
emaininther ecycl
ebinunt
ili
tisempt
ied.Fi
lesdel
eted
acci
dent
allycanberecov
eredfrom t
herecy cl
ebin.
Oncetherecycl
ebinhasbeenemptied,
itscont
ent
sar
eper
manent
lydel
etedf
rom t
he
computerandcannotberecov
ered.
Todel
eteaf
il
eoraf
older
,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Sel
ectt
hef
il
eort
hef
oldert
obedel
eted.
i
i
. Choose‘
del
ete’
from t
heedi
tmenu,
orpr
esst
hedel
etekey
.
i
i
i. Theoper
ati
ngsy
stem wi
l
lasky
out
oconf
ir
mthedel
eti
onwi
thadi
alogbox.
i
v. Cl
i
ck‘
yes’
toconf
ir
mthedel
eti
on.
Tor
est
oreaf
il
eorf
olderf
rom t
her
ecy
clebi
n,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Ont
hedeskt
op,
doubl
ecl
i
ckt
her
ecy
clebi
nicon.
i
i
. Sel
ectt
hef
il
eorf
oldert
ober
est
ored.
i
i
i. Chooser
estor
efrom thef
il
emenuorcl
ickther
est
orebut
tonintherecy
cle
bi
nwindow.Thi
swillputt
hefi
l
eorfol
derbacktoi
tsor
igi
nall
ocati
on.
Toempt
yther
ecy
clebi
n,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
i
. Doubl
ecl
i
ckt
her
ecy
clebi
niconf
rom t
hedeskt
op.
i
i
. Choose‘
empt
yrecy
clebi
n’f
rom t
hef
il
emenu.
i
i
i. Wi
ndowswi
l
lasky
out
oconf
ir
mthedel
eti
on.
i
v. Cl
i
ck‘
yes’
toconf
ir
m.
Progr
am fi
lesar
enotdel
etedi
nthesamewayasdatafil
esanddonotatt
emptt
odel
ete
them.Toremoveunwant
edprograms,
uni
nst
all
them byusi
ngthepr
ogramsint
he
contr
olpanel
.
Thest
epsofr
emov
ingpr
ogr
amsar
e:
i
. Cl
i
ckt
hest
artbut
tont
hensel
ect‘
cont
rol
panel
’
.
i
i
. Doubl
e-cl
i
ckt
hei
conf
orpr
ogr
amsi
nthecont
rol
panel
.
 i
i
i. Sel
ectt
hepr
ogr
am t
ober
emov
edf
rom t
hel
i
st.
i
v. Cli
ckt
heuni
nst
all
but
tonandt
heoper
ati
ngsy
stem wi
l
lasky
out
oconf
ir
mthe
remov
al.
v
. Cl
i
ck‘
yes’
toconf
ir
m or‘
No’
tocancel
ther
emov
al.
8.Fi
ndi
ngorsear
chi
ngf
il
es.
Whensearchi
ngfil
es,i
tisimport
anttoknowt helocat
ionofthefi
l
es.I
ncaseone
f
orget
sthefil
elocat
ion,‘
fi
nd’or‘
search’t
oolsareusedtolocat
ethem.Theeasi
estway
t
ofinddat
af i
l
esistosearchforthem bythei
rextensi
ons.
Tolocat
efi
lesinwi
ndows,
cli
ckont
hef
ind/
sear
chboxont
hest
artmenuandt
ypet
he
nameofthefil
e.
 COMPUTERNETWORKS.
Acomputernet
workisagr
oupofi
nterconnectedcomput
erswhichcommuni
cat
ewi
th
oneanot
heroverashar
edtr
ansmi
ssionmedi um usi
ngasetofr
ules
Funct
ionsofcomput
ernet
wor
ks
Themai
nreasonsofcomput
ernet
wor
kingar
e;
i
.Resour
ceshar
ing.
Asharedresourcei
nanetworkisadev
ice,dat
aandfi
leonacomput ert
hatcanbe
remotel
yaccessedfr
om anot
hercomputervi
aanetwork.Theresour
cei
savail
abl
eto
anyuseronthenetworkr
egar
dlessoft
hepositi
onoft
heuser .
i
i
i. Communi
cat
ion.
Computernetworkshaveenabledcommunicat
ionbet
weent
heconnect
edcomput
ers.
Dat
asignalsthatar
etransmit
tedbetweent
hecomputesi
nanet
workeit
hert
heyar
ein
di
ff
erentorthesamelocati
on.
i
v. Di
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
ng.
Inadi st
ri
butedsy st
em,compl exprobl
emsarebrokendownintosmallmanageabl
e
tasks.Thesetasksar et
hendi st
ri
butedtovar
iouscomputer
sconnectedtooneanother
forprocessi
ng.Comput ersthenperfor
msitstasksandthensendst
her esul
tst
oa
centralcomputer.Thisi
ncreasesthespeedofprocessi
ng.
v
. Costr
educt
ion
Shar
ingr
esourcesi
nanorganizat
ionischeaper
,fast
erandeasi
ert
omai
ntai
nthana
l
argecol
l
ecti
onofindi
vi
dualresources.
v
i. Rel
i
abi
l
ity
Net
wor
kingi
samor
esecur
ewayoft
ransf
err
ingdat
acompar
edt
ocar
ryi
ngi
tphy
sical
l
y.
Li
mit
ati
onsofcomput
ernet
wor
king
Comput
ernet
wor
ksal
sor
efert
hef
oll
owi
ngset
backs:
i
. Hi
ghi
nit
ial
cost
Thei
nit
ialcostofset
ti
ngupanetworki
shighsinceitr
equi
resex
t r
ahardwar
e
componentsandspecial
i
sedper
sonnel
forinst
all
ati
onandmaintenance.
i
i
.Rapi
dspr
eadofv
iruses
I
nt heeventoff
ail
urei
ntheef
fecti
venessoft
heanti
-v
irussoft
war
eort
hef
ir
ewal
l
,
v
irusescanrapi
dlyspr
eadtoal
lthecomputer
sinthenetwork.
 i
i
i.Fai
l
ureofacomput
ernet
wor
k
I
ncaseofful
ldependenceofanet
wor
k,i
tsf
ail
uremaycauseal
ltheoper
ati
onsofa
busi
nesst
obestopped.
i
v.Secur
it
yissues
Anet
wor kcomput
ercanbeaccessedr
emot
elyandt
hisi
ncr
easeschancesoft
appi
ng
ofmessagesandhacki
ng
El
ement
sofNet
wor
king.
Acomput
ernet
wor
kconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngbasi
cel
ement
s:
i
. Communi
cat
ionmedi
a
i
i
. Dat
asi
gnal
i
i
i. Net
wor
kingdev
ices
i
v. Net
wor
ksof
twar
e
1.COMMUNI
CATI
ONMEDI
A.
Ther
earetwocategori
esofcommunicat
ionmedi
athatar
eusedinnetworks.Thesear
e
communicat
ionswit
hcables(
wir
ed)andcommunicat
ionwi
thoutcabl
es(wir
eless)
.
a)Communi
cat
ionswi
thcabl
es.
Thisisalsoknownasboundedorgui dedmedi a.Thesemediahavephysi
cal
li
nks
thr
oughwhi chsi
gnal
sar econf
inedtoanarrowpat h.Theyar
emadeupofa
cableprotectedbyajacketofi
nsulat
ingmateri
al.Therearet
hreety
pesof
boundedmedi a,
namelytwist
edpaircabl
e,coaxialcabl
eandfibr
eopti
ccabl
e.
i
) Twi
stedpai
rcabl
e.
Thiscabl
eismadeupofpai r
sofinsulatedcopperwir
estwi
stedaroundeachot
her
.The
twist
saredonetoreducei
nterf
erencebyelectr
omagneti
cfrequenci
es(EMFs)and
crosstal
k.Theyar
eusuall
ypackedasf oursetsofpai
rsofwiresi
nacable.
i
i
i. Coaxi
alcabl
e(coax)
Itcontai
nstwoconductor
sofcopperwiresthatrunsthr
oughthecent
reofthecabl
eand
ashi el
dmadeofwi r
emesht ube,met
all
i
cf oi
l orbot
h.Thecentr
econduct
oris
surroundedbyapl
asti
cinsul
atorwhi
chiscov eredbyaconducti
ngshi
eldt
hatactsasa
returnpathandf
il
ter
selectr
omagneti
cfrequencies(EMFs)
.
i
v. Fi
bre-
opt
iccabl
e.
Thisisacabl
ethatusesglassmateri
alst
rands(
fi
bres)asthi
nasstrandsofhumanhair
.
Dataareconvert
edint
oli
ghtsignal
sandtransmi
ttedbyuseofli
ghtemitt
ingdi
odes
(LEDs)orl
asersthr
oughtheglassstr
ands.Ther
eceivert
henconver
tstheli
ghtsi
gnal
s
backi
ntoel
ect
ri
cal
signal
s.

c.Communi
cat
ionwi
thoutcabl
es(
wir
eless)
Thisi
salsoknownasunbounded, ungui
dedorwi r
elessmedi
a.Theyhav enophysical
l
inkbetweenthesenderandther
eceiver
.Usuallyt
hesignali
ssentthroughtheair
.
Wirel
esstr
ansmissi
oncanusemi crowave,radi
owav eori
nfr
aredrays.Thesearethe
fr
equenci
esintheelect
romagnet
icspectrum.
i
. Mi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
on.
Thisusesthelineofsi
ghtpropagat
ionwit
hafrequencyrangeofbet
ween3GHzand
4GHz.Microwav esi
gnalspr
opagateinonedi
recti
onatat i
me,meaningthatt
het
wo
fr
equenciesarenecessaryf
orat wowaycommuni cat
ionsuchasatelephone
communi cat
ion.
Onef r
equencyi
ssetasi def ortr
ansmissi
onint heoppositedir
ecti
ons.Eachfr
equency
requi
resit
sownt ransmitterandrecei
ver.Usually,
bothdevicesarecombinedinasingle
pieceofequi
pmentcal l
edat r
anscei
verwhichser vesbothasar ecei
verandtr
ansmitter
.
Therearetwotypesofmi crowav estr
ansmissionswhi chareter
restr
ial
forl
andtoland
andsatel
li
temicrowavef orlandtoairandvicev ersa.
i
i
. Radi
otr
ansmi
ssi
on.
9
Inthi
st r
ansmissionmethodradiosignal
swithoutafr
equencyrangeofl essthan3X10
Hzar etr
ansmi t
tedusi
nganant enna.Radi
owav estr
aveli
nal l
direct
ionsfrom the
source.Bluet
oothandwirel
essf i
del
ity(Wi
-Fi
)usetheradi
ofrequencyspect r
um.
i
i
i. I
nfr
aredt
ransmi
ssi
on.
12 14
Thi
scoveraf
requencyr
angeof3X10 Hzto4.3X10 Hz.Theydonotpenet
rat
esol
i
d
obj
ect
sandareusedinremot
econtr
olsandcomput
ernet
working.
2.Dat
asi
gnal
Datacanbet ransmi
ttedei
therindigi
tal
oranalogueform.Analoguewaveformsar
e
characteri
sedbybei
ngcontinuouslyvar
iabl
einbothfrequencyandampli
tudewhi
lea
digi
talsignal
isaser
iesofdiscret
epulsesrepr
esenti
ngz eroandonebit
s.
3.Net
wor
kingdev
ices.
Anetwor
kingdevi
ceisanyhar
dwaret
hatassi
sti
ndat
atr
ansmi
ssi
on.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
e
exampl
esofnetworki
ngdevi
ces:
i
. Net
wor
kint
erf
acecar
d(NI
C)
I
tisal
soknownasanet
wor
kint
erf
acecont
rol
l
eroranet
wor
kadapt
er.I
tisacomput
er
ci
rcui
tboar
d(car
d)t
hati
sinst
all
edi
nacomput
ert
oenabl
enet
wor
kconnect
ion.
TheNICt hati
susedinawirednetworkasapar twher
eonecanfi
xacablewhi
ch
connectstootherdevi
ceswhereasi
nawi r
elessnetwork,
awi
rel
esscar
dwhichhasa
smallantennainst
eadofapartisi
nst
all
ed
TheNICassignsauni
quephysi
caladdresscal
l
edMACaddr
esst
othecomput
eri
sused
todi
rectt
raf
ficbet
weenthecomputersonanetwor
k.
i
i
. Modem
Modem i
sashortformodul
atordemodul
ator.Iti
sadev i
cethatconnect
scomput
er
di
git
alsi
gnal
sint
ospeci
ficf
requenci
estotr
av eloveragi
venmedi aandback.
i
i
i. Hub.
Thisisajunctionboxwi thseveral
portsatt
hebackf orr
eceivingcommuni cat
ion.
Cablesarepl uggedintothiscentral
connecti
onpointsforalldevi
cesonanet workand
i
susedf ortransferofsignal
sf r
om onecomput ert
oanot herbybroadcast
ingtoallof
them.
i
v. Swi
tch.
Iti
sacommuni
cat
iondevicewithseveralport
satthebackt hati
susedforconnect
ing
comput
ersi
nanet
wor ktoacentralpoi
nt.It
smai npointistr
ansf
erdat
asignalsfr
om
onecomput
ert
oanotherinthenetworkwithoutbroadcasti
ng.
v
. Br
idge.
Abr i
dgei
sanetworkingdevicethatconnectsont henetworksegmentt
oanotherthat
usesthesameprotocol.I
tkeepsrecordofthet y
peofnet worksegment
sandaddr ess
ofallt
hecomputerinthenetworkthenusest hei
rrecordstodeter
minet
hedestinati
on
ofthemessage.
v
i. Rout
er.
Routi
ngisaprocessofmov i
ngmessagesacr ossanet
workfr
om asourcet
oa
desti
nat
ion.Arouteri
danetworkdevi
cethatdoesthi
s.I
naddit
ionst
ofunct
ionsofa
bri
dge,arout
erselect
sthebestpat
htorouteramessagebasedonthesour
ceand
desti
nat
ionaddress.
v
ii
. Repeat
er.
Arepeat
eri
snetwor
kdevi
ceusedt
oexpandt
hecov
erageofanet
wor
ksi
gnal
,thati
s,i
t
boost
sasignal
inanet
work.
I
tcl
eanst
hesi
gnal
tor
emov
edi
stor
ti
ons,
ampl
i
fiesandt
henr
etr
ansmi
tst
hem.
v
ii
i. Gat
eway
s.
Agat
ewayi
sadev
icet
hatenabl
escommuni
cat
ionbet
weendi
ff
erentnet
wor
k
envi
ronment
s.Thesameastheentr
yandexi
tpoi
ntsofanet
wor
ks,
thati
s,al
ldat
aint
o
oroutoft
henetwor
kpassesthr
oughthegat
eway
.
i
x. Accesspoi
nts.
Thesear
especi
all
yconfi
gur
eddevicesonawi
rel
essnet
wor
kthatact
sacent
ral
tr
ansmit
ter
sandrecei
ver
sofradi
osignal
s.

x. Fi
rewal
l
Iti
sdev i
cethatisplacedbet
weenacomputeroranet
worksegmentandtherestoft
he
network.I
tsfuncti
oni st
oprotectt
hecomput
eri
nthenet
workfrom unaut
hor
ised
access.
xi
. Ser
ver
.
Aser
veri
sacomput
ert
hatcont
rol
sandcoor
dinat
est
heact
ivi
ti
esofanet
wor
k.
xi
i
. Cl
i
ent
Thi
sisacomput
ert
hatusest
heser
vicepr
ovi
dedbyt
heser
ver
.
4.Net
wor
kSof
twar
e.
Thi
sref
erstosoft
warethati
sdesignedtosett
ingup,contr
oll
i
ngand/ ormonit
oring
comput
ingdevi
cesinanetwork.Foral
lthecomponentsinoperateopti
mall
y,softwar
e
i
sneededtocontr
ol,
monitorandsynchroni
setheoperat
ionofeach.Thesesoftwarein
twocat
egori
esnamely:
networkoperati
ngsyst
ems( NOS)andpr otocol
s.
(
i) Net
wor
kOper
ati
ngSy
stems.(
NOS)
.
Theseareoper
atingsystemst
hatcont
rolothersof
twar
eandhar
dwarerunni
ngonthe
networ
ks.Theyalsoall
owmanycomput er
st ocommunicat
ewi
thoneanotherandwi
th
thenet
workdevices.
(
ii
) Pr
otocol
s.
Apr otocol refer
stoasetofr ulesandstandar
dst hatgov erncommuni cat i
onsbet ween
comput ersandot hernetworkcomponents.Theser ul
esi ncludeguidelinest hat
regulatesaccessmet hods,all
owedphy si
calt
opologies,typesofcabl ingandspeedof
datat r
ansf ers.Someexampl esofprotocolsi
ncludeFTP( Fi
letransferpr otocol)
,TCP
(Transmi ssionCont r
olProtocol)
,IP(
Int
ernetProtocol)andHTTP( Hy perTex tTr
ansfer
Protocol )
.
Ty
pesofnet
wor
ks
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethet
ypesofcomput
ernet
wor
ks.
i
. Local
AreaNet
wor
k(LAN)
Thisisacomput eranet
workt
hatli
nkscomputer
swithi
nasmallgeogr
aphi
calareaof
approxi
matel
ynomor et
han2kil
ometresi
nforexampleabui
l
dingorcl
osel
ylocated
groupofbuil
dings.
i
i
. Met
ropol
i
tanAr
eaNet
wor
k(MAN)
Thi
snet
wor
kcov
ersanent
ir
etownorci
ty.
i
i
i. Wi
deAr
eaNet
wor
k(WAN)
.
Thi
snetwor
kcov
ersal
argegeogr
aphi
cal
aresuchasacount
ry,
acont
inentort
heent
ir
e
worl
d.
i
v. Per
sonal
AreaNet
wor
k(PAN)
.
Thisi
sacomputernet
wor
kor
gani
sedar
oundani
ndi
vi
dual
.Itcov
ersar
rangeofl
ess
thant
enmeter
s.
Net
wor
ktopol
ogi
es
Anetworktopologyi sar
rangementoft
hev ar
iousnetworki
ngelementsi
nacomput
er
net
work.Italsoreferstohowdataispassedfrom onedevicetoanot
hernet
wor
k.
Topol
ogi
escant herefor
ebev i
ewedaseit
herphysicalorl
ogical
.
1.Logi
cal
topol
ogy
.
Alsoknownassignaltopology.I
tshowshowdataispassedbetweent
henetwork
devices,r
egar
dsofthephy si
call
ayout.Ther
ear
etwotypesoflogi
calt
opol
ogiesnamel
y:
Ethernetandt
okenri
ngt opologi
es.
a.Et
her
nett
opol
ogi
es.
I
nthistopol
ogydataorthemessageisbr
oadcasttoallcomput
ersinthenetwor
k.A
devi
ceisablet
odet er
mineifamessagebel
ongst oi
tbycomparingit
saddresswit
hthe
oneont hemessage.I
ftheaddr
essesmatch,i
treadsthemessage;ot
herwisei
t
di
scardsthemessage.
b.Tokenr
ingt
opol
ogy
.
Atokeni
sacontainerwher
eamessageishel
d.Thistokenhol
dsabi
twhi
chcanbeset
t
o1or0.Thebitissetto1immedi
atel
yamessaget obesenti
sputi
ntoi
tandi
ssett
o
0whenthemessagehasbeenreadorwhenthetokenisempty.
2.Phy
sical
topol
ogy
.
Thisr
efer
stothearr
angementoft
hev
ari
ousdev
icesont
henet
wor
k.Phy
sical
topol
ogi
esincl
ude:
i
. Bust
opol
ogy
.
I
nthi
stopol
ogy
,al
lthenodesofanet
wor
kar
econnect
edt
oacommon
tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedium r
efer
redtoasabusorabackboneter
minat
edatbot
hends.I
t
usesEt
her
netl
ogi
calt
opologydur
ingdat
atr
ansmissi
on.

i
i
. Ri
ngt
opol
ogy
.
Inthi
stypeofnetworkt
opol
ogythedev i
cesareconnect
edbacktobackfor
minga
chainwit
hthefi
rstandthel
astbeingli
nkedtoget
hertocompl
etethel
oop.I
tuses
tokenri
ngtopol
ogyduri
ngdatatransmissi
on.

i
i
i. St
art
opol
ogy
.
Eachnodeint
hisnet
workt
opologyisdi
rect
lyconnect
edt
oacentraldev
icewhi
ch
canei
therbeahuboraswi
tch.Allt
hedatatransmi
ssi
onpassest
hroughthi
s
commondev i
ce.
Thesourcecomputertransmit
sdatatot hecentr
aldevicewhicht
henpassestothe
designat
edcomputer.Thedatawillei
therbebroadcasttoall
thecomputersi
nthe
networkorpasseddi
rectlyt
oitsdesti
nationdependi
ngont hecent
ral
dev i
ceused.
i
v. Mesht
opol
ogy
.
I
nthi
snet
wor
klay
out
,eachdev
icei
sconnect
edt
oev
eryot
herdev
iceont
henet
wor
k.

v
. Dai
sychai
n.
Dev
icesi
nthi
snet
wor
kar
econnect
edi
nal
i
nearl
ayout
,onedev
icet
oanot
her
.
Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhenchoosi
ngat
opol
ogy
.
1.Cost:consi
dert
hei
nit
ial
andmai
ntenancecostoft
henet
wor
ktopol
ogywhet
her
thecostishi
ghorl
ow.
2.Typeoftransmissi
onmedi
arequi
red:
sel
ectat
opol
ogyt
hatusesr
eadi
l
y
av
ailabl
emedi a.
3.Fut
uregr
owt
h:chooseat
opol
ogyt
hatcanbeenl
arged.
4.Typeofnet
worki
ngdev
icer
equi
red:
sel
ectat
opol
ogyt
hatusesr
eadi
l
yav
ail
abl
e
networ
kdevi
ces.
 COMPUTERSECURI
TY
Computersystemsf acethreat
st odatasecur
ityandcont r
olmeasure.Theappr opriate
ter
mf orthi
siscomput ercrimes.iti
spossibl
et ohav esomemeasur esthatcanpr otect
anddetectanypossiblecomput ercri
mesagai nstdata.Mostcountr
ieshaveal so
enact
edlawst hatgoverntheprotecti
onofinformationcommuni cat
ionandt echnology
syst
ems.
Secur
it
ythr
eat
sandcont
rol
measur
es
Dat
alossort
hreat
stodat
asecur
it
ycanbeduet
othef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;
1.Comput
erv
iruses
2.Unaut
hor
isedaccess.
3.Comput
erer
ror
sandacci
dent
aler
asur
es.
4.Thef
t.
5.Cr
ashi
ngofhar
ddi
sk.
6.Powerf
ail
ure.
1.Comput
erv
iruses.
Acomput ervi
rusisadest
ruct
ivepr
ogr
am desi
gnedbymalici
ouspeopl
ewiththe
i
ntent
ionofgaini
ngaccessanddest
roy
ingcomputerf
il
es,
programsandtheenti
re
computersyst
em.
Ty
pesofv
iruses
Dependi
ngonhowt
heyat
tackt
hecomput
ersy
stem,
vir
usescanbegr
oupedi
nto;
i
. Wor
ms–t
hesear
evi
rusest
hatat
tacht
hemsel
vest
ocomput
ermemor
y.
i
i
.Hoax-t
hesear
esentt
hroughe-
mai
l
sasj
unkmai
lbyunknownper
sons.
i
i
i.Troj
ans–t heseamendfi
l
esandexecut
epr
ogr
amsi
nthebackgr
oundwi
thout
theuser
s’knowledge.
i
v.Trapdoors-theycanbeTroj
ansorwor
ms.Theyar
ethev
irusest
hatpr
ovi
de
secretaccesstothecomput
ersyst
em.
Feat
uresofcomput
erv
iruses
Comput
erv
iruseshav
ethef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures
i
. Theyar
eusuall
ygi
venpleasantandmaybeordi
nar
ynamessucht
hatt
he
comput
erusermaynotsuspectafil
ecar
ryi
ngthevi
rus.
i
i
. Thoseat
tachedt
ofi
l
esi
nst
all
themsel
vesonacomput
erwi
thoutper
missi
on
 whent
hef
il
esar
eopened.
i
i
i. Oncei
nacomput
ert
heymi
ghtmul
ti
plyr
epeat
edl
yfi
l
li
ngt
hememor
y.
i
v. Someamendanddest
royf
il
eswi
thoutt
heuser
s’knowl
edge.
Sour
cesofv
iruses.
Vi
rusescangeti
ntoacomput
ert
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s;
i
. Cont
actwi
thcont
ami
nat
edsecondar
yst
oragedev
icessuchasf
lashdi
sks.
i
i
. I
nstal
l
ationofsoft
waret
hroughanetwork.i
ftheprogr
am f
il
esonanetwork
ar
einfected,
thent
heywil
leasi
lyt
ransf
erthevir
usestoot
hercomput
ers.
i
i
i. Pir
atedsoftwareandmulti
mediaf
il
es.Theycanbecarr
ier
sofv i
ruses
especi
all
yiftheyarecopi
edfr
om acomputerthati
sinf
ected.
i
v. Theinternet
:-i
facomputerisconnectedt
otheinter
net,
thenitismore
vul
nerabletovi
rusest
hroughspyware.Spywar
earemal i
cioussoft
waret hat
att
acht hemsel
vestoacomputersystem t
omoni t
ortheusers’act
ivi
ty.
Cont
rol
measur
esagai
nstv
iruses.
Vir
usescanbeel
i
minat
edandpr
event
edf
rom i
nfect
ingcomput
ersbydoi
ngt
he
fol
lowi
ng:
i
. Inst
all
updat edant
i-
vir
ussoftware.Anti
-vi
russoft
war eprot
ectacomput er
syst
em f r
om vir
uses.Theyalsodetectandremovet hevir
usesalr
eadyina
comput er
.Someoft heavai
lableanti
-vi
russoft
warei ncl
ude:Bi
tdefender,
Kaspersky,Nort
on,MacAfeeandAVGamongot hers.
i
i
. Scananyremov
abl
esecondar
yst
oragedev
icesf
orv
irusesbef
oreusi
ngi
na
computer
.
i
i
i. Al
way
sbackupi
mpor
tantf
il
est
oav
oidl
osi
ngt
hem.
i
v. Scananyf
il
esandsof
twar
eont
hei
nter
netbef
oredownl
oadi
ngt
hem.
v
. Av
oidi
nst
all
i
ngpi
rat
edsof
twar
e.
v
i. I
nst
all
fir
ewal
lont
hecomput
ersandont
henet
wor
ks.
v
ii
. Disablet
heext
ernal
stor
agedr
ivesoft
hecomput
erswhi
char
eusedbymany
people.
2.Unaut
hor
izedaccess.
Unaut
hor
isedaccessr
efer
stoi
l
legal
accessandal
ter
ati
onofdat
aandpr
ogr
ams.
Cont
rol
measur
esagai
nstunaut
hor
isedaccess
i
. Rest
ri
ctaccesst
othecomput
er.
Thisisdonetoensur
ethatonlyaut
horizedpeopleget
saccesstot
hecomputer
systems.I
tcanbeimplementedthr
ough: l
ocki
ngdoorsofthecomput
erroom ev
ery
ti
mei ti
snotinuseandemploy i
ngsecurit
yguards.
i
i
. Rei
nfor
ceweakaccesspoi
nts.
Accesspoi
ntswi
thi
nar
oom ar
edoor
s,wi
ndowsandt
her
oof
.Rei
nfor
cingt
hem i
sby
:
a.Fi
tt
ingbur
glar
-pr
oofdev
icesatt
hedoor
s.
b.Fi
tt
ingmet
all
i
cgr
il
lsont
hewi
ndows.
c.Fi
tt
ingsecur
it
yal
armsatt
hedoor
s.
d.Usi
ngbur
glar
-pr
oofmat
eri
alont
her
oof
.
i
i
i. Encr
ypt
ionofdat
atr
ansmi
tt
edt
hroughanet
wor
k.
Thi
sisdonet
opr
eventt
appi
ng.
i
v. Useofpasswor
ds.
Apasswordisagroupofchar
actersthati
susedtorest
ri
ctaccesstoacomputerfi
l
e.A
goodpasswordshoul
dhaveatleastsixchar
act
ersandbeacombi nat
ionofl
ett
ers,
numbersandsymbols.
3.Comput
erer
ror
sandacci
dent
s.
Thesearecausedbyausermistakenl
yex ecut
ingacommandwhichcausesacomputer
toshutdownwi t
houtsav
ingdat
a, del
eti
ngdataorhandi
ngoveraconf
ident
ial
fil
eto
unauthor
isedper
son.
Cont
rol
measur
es.
i
. Useofdatar
ecoverytool
s:-someoper
ati
ngsy
stemshav
eaut
omat
icdat
a
recov
eryt
ool
sforrecover
ingunsav
eddata.
i
i
. Usingbackups:
-alwaysbackupper
iodi
cal
l
ysot
hati
ntheev
entofany
accidentt
hebackupcanbeused.
i
i
i. Useofunfor
matteduti
li
ti
es:-t
heseuti
l
iti
esenabl
esonet
orecov
erdat
afr
om
afor
mattedsecondar
ystoragedevi
ce.
i
v. useofrecycl
ebi
n:-al
lfi
lesandfoldersdel
etedf
rom thecomputergot
othe
recy
clebinwher
etheycanlaterberestor
edordelet
edpermanentl
y.
4.Thef
t
Thecomputersi
ncl
udi
ngthei
rpart
smaybestolen.St
eal
ingofi
mport
antpar
tsofa
computersy
stem t
her
ebycausi
ngdamaget
ot hewholesyst
em i
sref
err
edtoas
vandal
i
sm.
Cont
rol
measur
es.
i
. Keepi
ngbackupsi
ndi
ff
erentl
ocat
ionsawayf
rom t
hecomput
ert
oav
oid
l
osingdat
a.
i
i
. Empl
oyi
ngsecur
it
yguar
dst
owat
chov
ercomput
err
ooms.
i
i
i. Fi
tt
ingsecur
it
yal
armst
odet
ectt
het
hef
t.
i
v. Bui
l
dingt
hecomput
err
oom nearot
herbui
l
dingst
oai
dinsur
vei
l
lance.
v
. Locki
ngt
hesy
stem uni
tsont
othet
abl
esusi
ngpadl
ocks.
5.Cr
ashi
ngoft
hehar
ddi
sk.
Cr
ashingoft
hehar
ddi
skr
efer
stodamageoft
hedi
sksi
nsi
decausi
ngt
hem t
ost
op
worki
ng.
Cont
rol
measur
es.
i
. Pr
eventdustf
rom get
ti
ngi
ntot
hecomput
ers.
i
i
. Al
way
sshutdownt
hecomput
ercor
rect
ly.
6.Powerf
ail
ure.
Powerf
ail
urer
esul
tsi
nthel
ossofunsav
eddat
aandcr
ashi
ngoft
hehar
ddi
sk.
Cont
rol
measur
es.
i
. Usingpowerbackupdevi
cesknownasuni
nter
rupt
ibl
epowersuppl
y(UPS)t
o
keepthecomputerworki
ngforawhi
lei
ncasether
eisasuddenpower
outage.
i
i
. Whi
leworki
ngont
hecomputeroccasi
onall
ysavethedatat
opr
eventl
osi
ng
t
hem ory
oucanact
ivat
etheaut
osav efaci
l
iti
esi
favai
labl
e.
Comput
ercr
imes.
Computercri
mesarethebadacti
vi
ti
esdonewi
thoronani
nfor
mati
onsystem.Theyar
e
al
soref
erredtoascybert
err
ori
sm.Theycant
akemanyfor
mswhichincl
ude:
i
. Trespass:
-thi
sref
erst
othei
l
legal
accesst
othecomput
ersy
stem aswel
las
todata.
i
i
. Hacki
ng:-t
hisisunaut
hor
isedaccesstoacomput
ersy
stem byut
il
isi
ngt
he
l
oopholesl
eftbythecr
eat
ers.Apersonwhodoest
hisi
sknownasahacker.
i
i
i. Tappi
ng:-t
hisi
sgaini
ngunauthor
izedaccesstodatabeingsentov
era
net
work.Thedat
aisint
ercept
edusingint
ell
igentpr
ograms.
i
v. Cracki
ng:t
hisist
heprocessoft
ryi
ngall
possi
blecharact
ercombinat
ionsof
passwordsl
ikel
ytobeusedtoaccesssyst
emsinordertoident
if
yweak
 accesspoi
ntswi
thani
ntent
ionofcommi
tt
ingf
raud.
v
. Piracy:-appli
cat
ionofcopyri
ght
edmat
eri
alst
hatar
einsof
tcopy
.Pi
racyi
s
theftofintel
l
ectualpr
opert
y.
v
i. Fr
aud:-t
hisist
heuseofcomput
ersy
stemst
ocheatt
heunsuspect
ingpubl
i
c
wi
thint
enti
onofget
ti
ngmoney.
v
ii
. Sabot
age:-thi
sisadel
i
berat
edest
ruct
ion,damageorobst
ruct
ionoft
he
computersy
stem f
oraper
sonorabusinessadvant
age.
v
ii
i. Eavesdr
oppi
ng:-l
ist
eningtocommuni
cat
ionsecr
etl
ybyt
appi
ngont
he
communicat
ionchannel.
Det
ect
ionandpr
otect
ionagai
nstcomput
ercr
imes.
Therear
emeasur eswhi
chcanbetakeni
nordert
osealgapsf
orcomputercr
imesand
ther
ebyprot
ectdataandthecomput
ersy
stem.Thesemeasur
esi
nclude:
1.Audi
ttr
ail
:thi
sisathor
oughstudydoneonaninfor
mati
onsy
stem t
oident
if
yany
l
oopholesthatcanbeusedt
oi l
l
egal
lyaccesst
hesyst
em.
2.Dataencrypt
ion:i
tref
erstoconvert
ingdatai
ntoatypethatonlythesenderand
therecei
verareabl
etounderstand.Thi
sprocessofencrypt
ingdataisknownas
cipher
ingandthecharact
ersthatareencr
yptedar
ereferr
edt oasciphert
ext.
Whendoi ngencry
ption,akeyi srandomlygenerat
edandsenttotherecei
veri
n
advance.Whentheci phertextisrecei
ved,t
hereci
pientmustusethesamekey
generat
edduringcipheri
ngt oconv er
tthedatat
oar eadabl
eform.Thi
sisknown
asde-encry
pti
onorde- cipheri
ng.
3.Logfi
l
es:t
hesear
efi
l
eswi
tht
her
ecor
dofhowt
hesy
stem i
susedgener
ated
aut
omati
cal
ly.
4.Patches:apat
chisali
neofcodewhichr epair
sthedefectinsof
twar
ewithout
i
nterrupt
ingt
hesoft
wares’
operat
ion.Theyar ewri
tt
enbyt hesoft
warev
endor
andar emeantt
oseall
oopholesont hesoftwarepackages.

Lawsgov
erni
ngpr
otect
ionofi
nfor
mat
ionsy
stems.
Therearecert
ainbehavi
oursthatar
eaccept
ableandothersunaccept
abl
ewhen
workingwit
hcomput er
s.Thosethatar
eunacceptabl
eleadtocomputercr
imes.Laws
rel
atedtoi
nformati
onsy st
emsdeal wi
th:
1.Saf
eguardi
ngofcomputingandinf
ormationsyst
emsagainstcr
imi
nal
swho
i
nfr
ingeonthepr
inci
pleofconf
identi
ali
ty,
int
egri
tyandav
ail
abil
i
ty.
2.Saf
eguar
dingofcodeanddat
a.Taki
ngcar
eofcopy
right
s,pat
ent
sandt
rade
 secr
ets.
3.Saf
eguar
dingofaccesst
opr
ogr
amsbyanyaut
hor
isedper
sons.
4.Saf
eguar
dingofconf
ident
ial
dat
aabouti
ndi
vi
dual
s.
5.Saf
eguar
dingofI
CTi
nfr
ast
ruct
ureagai
nstt
err
ori
sm andv
andal
i
sm.
Lawsgov
erni
ngI
CTi
nKeny
a.
TheamendmentoftheKeny
acommunicati
onsactof1998ofKeny
at o
communicat
ions(
amendment)Bi
l
lof2008outl
i
nesmostoftheICTissues.
 OFFI
CEAUTOMATI
ON
Offi
ceautomationissy
nonymouslyref
erredtoasel ect
roni
coff
ice.Itiscombi
nati
onsof
vari
oustechnol
ogiesmeanttoimprovetheeffi
ciencyofoff
icewor kandslowsto
reducethenumberofoffi
cestaf
femploy ed.Of
fi
ceaut omati
onhaschangedandi s
expectedtochangefur
thert
heworkstyleinmoder noffi
cesconsiderabl
y.
Offi
ceaut omat i
onsy st
emsatpresentcomput ersbasedinf
ormat i
onsy st
emst hat
col
lect,process, st
oreandt r
ansmitel
ectronicmessages,document sandot herforms
ofcommuni cati
onsamongi ndi
vi
duals,workgr oupsandorganisati
ons.Suchsy stems
canincr easet heproducti
vi
tyofmanagerialusersandotherprofessi
onalsby
si
gnificant l
yreduci
ngt heti
meandef for
tneededt oproduce,accessandr eceiv
e
businesscommuni cati
on.
Of
fi
ceaut
omat
ionsy
stems
Of
fi
ceaut
omat
ioncompr
isesoft
hef
oll
owi
ngsy
stems:
1.El
ect
roni
cpubl
i
shi
ngsy
stems
Thesesystemsareaimedatmani
pul
ati
ngwords,
number
sandimagest
o
meaningfuldocument
s.Themai
nsyst
em whi
chimpl
ementt
hese
appl
icat
ionsare:
a.Wor
dpr
ocessi
ngsy
stem.
b.Deskt
oppubl
i
shi
ng(
DTP)
.
Wor
dpr
ocessi
ngsy
stems.
Wor dprocessingwast hefir
standissti
l
lthemostcommonof f
iceaut
omat i
on
appli
cati
on.Wor dpr ocessi
ngistheuseofcomput er–basedsyst
emst ocreat
e,edi
t,
revi
seandpr inttextmateri
als.Wordpr
ocessinginvol
vesmani
pulat
ingtex
t,datato
produceinformat i
onproductsinthef
orm ofdocuments.
Thedocument
susedi
nof
fi
cescanbecat
egor
isedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngmai
ngr
oups:
-
i
. One-
offt
extsuchasi
ndi
vi
dual
i
sedl
ett
ersandmemor
anda
i
i
. Dupli
cat
ed-
textsuchasst
andar
dlet
ter
sandcer
tai
nlegal
document
sper
haps
wit
hdegreeofindi
vi
dual
it
y.
i
i
i. Uptable-
text
ssuchasr
epor
tsandmanufact
urer
’smanual
sthatmaybe
neededamendmentatr
egul
arint
erv
als.
Ther
eareavari
etyofwordpr
ocessi
ngpackages.Themostandpopul
aronesMi
crosof
t
wordandwordperf
ect.
Deskt
oppubl
i
shi
ng(
DTP)
DTPistheemploymentofthecomputerinor
dert ocreatepagesofmi
xedt ext
sand
i
ll
ust
rat
ions.Thesoftwar
eassoci
atedwithDTPt ogetherwit
hahighquali
typri
nterare
nowavail
abletoenablet
hist
obeachievedstr
aightforwardl
yandtoahighstandard.
Thetypeofdocumentt
obepr epar
edi
nthi
swayi
ncl
ude:
newsl
ett
ers,
not
ices,
adver
tisement
sandcat
alogues.
2.El
ect
roni
ccommuni
cat
ionsy
stems.
Thi
sisoneofthemajorappl
icat
ionareasofoff
iceautomati
on.Elect
roni
c
communicat
ionsyst
emsincludethetransmi
ssi
onanddi st
ri
buti
onoft ext
sandimages
i
nelect
roni
cform ov
ertel
ecommuni cati
onnet
works.Thesesystemsinclude:
i
. El
ect
roni
cmai
l
El
ectr
oni
cmai l(
e-mai
l)haschangedthewaypeopleworkandcommunicat
e.
Mil
li
onsofpeoplenowdependone- mai
ltosendandrecei
veel
ectr
oni
cmessages.
Youcansendthemessagestoany oneonyournet
workforst
oragei
nthei
r
el
ectr
oni
cmai l
boxes.
Whenevertheyarer
eady,
theycanreadthem bydi
spl
ayingt
hem onthei
rmoni
tor
scr
eensattheirwor
kstat
ions.sowit
honlyfewminut
esofeffor
t,amessaget
oone
ormanyindivi
dual
scanbecomposed, sentandr
ecei
ved.
i
i
. Voi
ceMai
l
.
Thi
sisav ar
iat
ionofel
ect
roni
cmai l
wher eelect
roni
cv oicemessagesareused.Thi
s
i
swherey oudial
thenumberofthepersony ouwishtocontactandspeakyour
message.Youranal
oguemessageisdigit
izedandstoredont hevoi
cemail
computersyst
em.Wheneveryouwantt ohearyourvoicemail
,yousimpl
ydialyour
voi
cemailboxnumberandli
stentothestoredmessage.
i
i
i. Facsi
mil
e.(
FAX)
Faxi
snotanewof fi
cetel
ecommunicati
onser
vice.Howev
er,
advancesi
ndigi
tal
emer
gingtechnol
ogyandmicroel
ect
roni
cshascausedadropinpri
cesanda
si
gni
fi
cantincr
easei
ncapabil
it
y.
Facsi
mil
eal
lowsy outotr
ansmi
timagesofi
mpor
tantdocument
sov
er
tel
ecommunicat
ionl
inks.
3.El
ect
roni
cmeet
ingsy
stems.
Thisi
nv ol
vestheuseofvi
deoandaudiocommuni cat
ionstoall
owconferencesand
meetingstobeheldwit
hparti
cipant
swhomaybescat t
eredacrosst
heroom, bui
ldi
ng,
countryortheworl
d.Anexampleofthi
sist
eleconfer
encingwheresessi
onsareheldin
realt
ime.
4.Of
fi
cemanagementsy
stem.
Thisi
sanof f
iceautomationsyst
em thati
ntegr
atesel
ectroniccal
endars,
sti
ckers,fi
les,
e-mail
,di
rect
ories,
scheduler
sandtaskmanagementsy stems.Thisprovi
descomput er
-
basedsupportservi
cetomanagerandot herof
fi
ceprofessional
stohelpthem organise
thei
rworkactiv
iti
es.
5.El
ect
roni
cimagepr
ocessi
ngsy
stems.
Thisisanotherfast-gr
owingar
eaofoff
iceautomat
ion.I
tal
lowsuser
stoelect
roni
cal
ly
capture,
store,processandret
ri
evei
magesofdocument st
hatmayincl
udenumeric
datatexts,
handwr it
ing,gr
aphi
csandphotogr
aphs.
6.El
ect
roni
cFundsTr
ansf
er(
EFT)
EFTist heappli
cat
ionofcomputersinswit
chi
ngmoneyf r
om oneaccounttoanot
her
usingtelecommunicat
ionfaci
l
iti
es.Thetr
endistol
inkupbanksbrancheswit
heach
other,
wi thot
herbanksandeventual
lywit
hcustomerssothatEFTcantakepl
ace.
7.El
ect
roni
cdat
aint
erchange(
EDI
)
I
tisthedi
rectcomputert
ocomput erex
changeofst
andar
dbusi
nessdocument
s
bet
weentwoseparateorgani
sat
ions.
EDIdif
fer
sf r
om e-
maili
nthatittr
ansmitsanactual
transacti
onasopposedtoa
pri
maril
ytextmessageandfeaturesst
andardi
sedtr
ansactionsf
ormat,cont
ent
srel
ated
toerr
orschecki
ngandactualprocessi
ngofinf
ormation.