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From Bits and Gates to C and Beyond

Bits, Data Types, and Operations

Chapter 2

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 How do we represent data in a computer?

At the lowest level, a computer is an electronic machine.

• Works by controlling the flow of electrons.

Easy to recognize two conditions:

1. Presence of a voltage – we’ll call this state “1.”
2. Absence of a voltage – we’ll call this state “0.”

We could base the state on the value of the voltage, but control and
detection circuits are more complex.
• Compare sticking a lightbulb (or your finger) in a socket versus using a
voltmeter.

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 Computer is a Binary Digital system

Digital = finite number of values (compared to “analog” = infinite values)

Binary = only two values: 0 and 1
Unit of information = binary digit, or “bit”

Circuits (see Chapter 3) will pull voltage down towards zero,

or will pull up towards the highest voltage.
Grey areas represent noise margin -- allowable deviation due to
resistance, capacitance, interference from other circuits, temperature,
etc. More reliable than analog.
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 More than two values...

Each "wire" in a logic circuit represents one bit = 0 or 1.

Values with more than two states require multiple wires (bits).

With two bits, can represent four different values:

00, 01, 10, 11
With three bits, can represent eight different values:
000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111

With n bits, can represent 2n different values.

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 What kinds of values do we want to represent?

Numbers - integer, fraction, real, complex, ...

Text - characters, strings...
Images - pixels, colors, shapes...
Sound
Video
Logical - true, false
Instructions

All data is represented as a collection of bits.

We encode a value by assigning a bit pattern to represent that value.
We perform operations (transformations) on bits, and we interpret the
results according to how the data is encoded.

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 Data Type

In a computer system, we need a representation of data and operations

that can be performed on the data by the machine instructions or the
computer language.
This combination of representation + operations is known as a data type.

Type Representation Operations

Unsigned integers binary add, multiply, etc.
Signed integers 2's complement binary add, multiply, etc.
Real numbers IEEE floating-point add, multiply, etc.
Text characters ASCII input, output, compare

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 Unsigned Integers 1

Non-positional notation (unary)

• Could represent a number (“5”) with a string of ones (“11111”).
• Problems?

Weighted positional notation (binary)

• Like decimal numbers: “329.”
• “3” is worth 300, because of its position, while “9” is only worth 9.
• Since only 0 and 1 digits, use a binary (base-two) number system.

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 Unsigned Integers 2

Encode a decimal integer using base-two binary number

Use n bits to represent values from 0 to 2n - 1

22 21 20 value
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 2
0 1 1 3
1 0 0 4
1 0 1 5
1 1 0 6
1 1 1 7

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 Unsigned Binary Arithmetic

Base-2 addition -- just like base-10

• Add from right to left, propagating carry.

Can also do subtraction, multiplication, etc., using base-2.

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 Signed Integers
How to represent positive (+) and negative (−)?
With n bits, we have 2n encodings.
• Use half of the patterns (the ones starting with zero) to represent
positive numbers.
• Use the other half (the ones starting with one) to represent negative
numbers.

Three different encoding schemes

• Signed-magnitude.
• 1's complement.
• 2's complement.

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 Signed-Magnitude

Leftmost bit represents the sign of the number.

0 = positive
1 = negative
Remaining bits represent the magnitude of the number using the binary
notation used for unsigned integers.

Examples of 5-bit signed-magnitude integers:

00101 = +5 (sign = 0, magnitude = 0101)
10101 = −5 (sign = 1, magnigude = 0101)
01101 = +13 (sign = 0, magnitude = 1101)
10010 = −2 (sign = 0, magnitude = 0010)

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 1's complement

To get a negative number, start with a positive number (with zero as the
leftmost bit) and flip all the bits -- from 0 to 1, from 1 to 0.

Examples -- 5-bit 1's complement integers:

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 Disadvantages of Signed-Magnitude and 1's Complement

In both representations, two different representations of zero

• Signed-magnitude: 00000 = 0 and 10000 = 0.

• 1's complement: 00000 = 0 and 11111 = 0.

Operations are not simple.

• Think about how to add +2 and −3.

• Actions are different for two positive integers, two negative integers,
one positive and one negative.

A simpler scheme: 2's complement

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 2's Complement

To simplify circuits, we want all operations on integers to use binary

arithmetic, regardless of whether the integers are positive or negative.
When we add +X to −X we want to get zero.
Therefore, we use "normal" unsigned binary to represent +X.
And we assign to −X the pattern of bits that will make X + (−X) = 0.

NOTE: When we do this, we get a carry-out bit of 1, which is ignored.

We only have 5 bits, so the carry-out bit is ignored and we still have 5 bits.

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 2's Complement Integers

4-bit 2's value 4-bit 2's value

complement complement
0000 0
0001 1 1111 −1
0010 2 1110 −2
0011 3 1101 −3
0100 4 1100 −4
0101 5 1011 −5
0110 6 1010 −6
0111 7 1001 −7
1000 −8

With n bits, represent values from -2n -1 to + 2n -1 - 1

NOTE: All positive number start with 0, all negative numbers start with 1.

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 Converting X to −X

1. Flip all the bits. (Same as 1's complement.)

2. Add +1 to the result.

A shortcut method:
Copy bits from right to left up to (and including) the first '1'.
Then flip remaining bits to the left.

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 Converting Binary (2's C) to Decimal

1. If leading bit is one, take two’s complement to get a positive number.

2. Add powers of 2 that have “1” in the corresponding bit positions.
3. If original number was negative, add a minus sign.
n 2n
0 1
1 2
X = 01101000 two 2 4
3 8
= 2 + 2 + 2 = 64 + 32 + 8
6 5 3
4 16
5 32
=104 ten 6 64
7 128
8 256
In the
following
Examples use 8-bit 2’s complement numbers. 9 512
table, read
‘2n’ as 2 to
the power
10 1024
n.

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 More Examples

X = 00100111two n 2n
= 25 + 22 + 21 + 20 = 32 + 4 + 2 + 1 0 1
In the
1 2
following
= 39 ten table,
2 ‘24n’
read
as 2 to
the
3 8n.
X = 11100110 two power
4 16

- X = 00011010 5 32
6 64
= 24 + 23 + 21 = 16 + 8 + 2 7 128
8 256
= 26 ten 9 512

X = -26 ten 10 1024

Examples use 8-bit 2’s complement numbers.

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 Converting Decimal to Binary (2's C) 1

First Method: Division

1. Find magnitude of decimal number. (Always positive.)
2. Divide by two – remainder is least significant bit.
3. Keep dividing by two until answer is zero, writing remainders from
right to left.
4. Append a zero as the MS bit; if original number was negative, flip bits
and add +1.

X = 104 ten 104 / 2 = 52 r 0 bit 0

52 / 2 = 26 r 0 bit 1
26 / 2 = 13 r 0 bit 2
13 / 2 = 6 r1 bit 3
6 / 2 = 3 r0 bit 4
3 / 2 = 1 r1 bit 5
X = 01101000 two 1/ 2 = 0 r1 bit 6
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 Converting Decimal to Binary (2's C) 2
n 2n
Second Method: Subtract Powers of Two 0 1
1 2
1. Find magnitude of decimal number. 2 4
2. Subtract largest power of two less than or 3 8
equal to number. 4 16
5 32
3. Put a one in the corresponding bit position. 6 64
4. Keep subtracting until result is zero. 7 128
8 256
5. Append a zero as MS bit; if original was 9 512
negative, flip bits and add +1. 10 1024

X = 104 ten 104 - 64 = 40 bit 6

40 - 32 = 8 bit 5
8-8=0 bit 3
X = 01101000 two
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 Fractions: Fixed-Point Binary

We use a "binary point" to separate integer bits from fractional bits,

just like we use the "decimal point" for decimal numbers.
Two's complement arithmetic still works the same.

NOTE: In a computer, the binary point is implicit -- it is not explicitly

represented. We just interpret the values appropriately.
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 Converting Decimal Fraction to Binary (2's C)

1. Multiply fraction by 2.
2. Record one's digit of result, then subtract it from the decimal number.
3. Continue until you get 0.0000... or you have used the desired number
of bits (in which case you have approximated the desired value).

X = 0.421ten 0.421 ´ 2 = 0.842 bit - 1 = 0

0.842 ´ 2 = 1.684 bit - 2 = 1
0.684 ´ 2 = 1.368 bit - 3 = 1
0.368 ´ 2 = 0.736 bit - 4 = 0
until 0, or until no more bits...
X = 0.0110 two (if limited to 4 fractional bits)

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 Operation: Addition

As discussed, 2's complement addition is just binary addition.

• Assume operands have the same number of bits.

• Ignore carry-out.

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 Operation: Subtraction

You can, of course, do subtraction in base-2, but easier to negate the

second operand and add.
Again, assume same number of bits, and ignore carry-out.

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 Operation: Sign Extension

To add/subtract, we need both numbers to have the same number of bits.

What if one number is smaller?
Padding on the left with zero does not work:

Instead, replicate the most significant bit (the sign bit):

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 Overflow

If the numbers are two big, then we cannot represent the sum using the
same number of bits.
For 2's complement, this can only happen if both numbers are positive
or both numbers are negative.

How to test for overflow:

1. Signs of both operands are the same, AND.
2. Sign of sum is different.

Another test (easier to perform in hardware): Carry-in to most significant bit position is
different than carry-out.

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© McGraw Hill 26
 Logical Operations: AND, OR, NOT

If we treat each bit as TRUE (1) or FALSE (0), then we define these
logical operations, also known as Boolean operations, on a bit.

A B A AND B A B A OR B A NOT A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

View n-bit number as a collection of n logical values (bit vector)

• operation applied to each bit independently.

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 Examples of Logical Operations

AND
useful for clearing bits
• AND with zero = 0.
• AND with one = no change.

OR
useful for setting bits
• OR with zero = no change.
• OR with one = 1.

NOT
unary operation -- one argument
• flips every bit.

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 Logical Operation: Exclusive-OR (XOR)

Another useful logical operation is the XOR. A B A XOR B

True is one of the bits is 1, but not both.
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR
useful for selectively flipping bits
• XOR with zero = no change.
• XOR with one = flip.

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© McGraw Hill 29
 DeMorgan's Laws 1
There's an interesting relationship between AND and OR.
If we NOT two values (A and B), AND them, and then NOT the result,
we get the same result as an OR operation. (In the figure below, an
overbar denotes the NOT operation.)

Here's the truth table to convince you:

Copyright © McGraw Hill Education. Permission required or display

A B A̅ B̅ A̅ AND B̅ A̅ AND B̅
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
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© McGraw Hill 30
 DeMorgan's Laws 2

This means that any OR operation can be written as a combination of

AND and NOT.

This is interesting, but is it useful? We'll come back to this in later

chapters...
Also, convince yourself that a similar "trick" works to perform AND using
only OR and NOT.
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© McGraw Hill 31
 Very Large or Very Small Numbers: Floating-Point

Large values: 6.023 ´ 1023 -- requires 79 bits

Small values: 6.626 ´ 10 -34 -- requires >110 bits
• Range requires lots of bits, but only four decimal digits of precision.

Use a different encoding for the equivalent of “scientific notation”: F × 2E

Need to represent F (fraction), E (exponent), and sign.
IEEE 754 Floating-Point Standard (32-bits):

N = (-1) S ´1.fraction ´ 2exponent -127 , 1 £ exponent £ 254

N = (-1) S ´ 0.fraction ´ 2-126 , exponent = 0
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 Floating-point Example

Single-precision IEEE floating point number:

• Sign is 1 – number is negative.

• Exponent field is 01111110 = 126 (decimal).
• Fraction is 0.100000000000… = 0.5 (decimal).

Value = - 1.5 ´ 2(126-127 ) = -1.5 ´ 2-1 = -0.75.

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 Converting from Decimal to Floating-Point Binary

How do we represent -6 5 as a floating-point binary number?

8
Ignoring sign, represent as a binary fraction: 0110.101
Next, normalize the number, by moving the binary point to the right of the
most significant bit: 0110.101 = 1.10101 ´ 22

Exponent field = 127 + 2 = 129 = 10000001

Fraction field = everything to the right of the binary point: 101010000....
Sign field is 1 (because the number is negative).

Answer:
11000000110101000000000000000000

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 Special Values

Infinity

• If exponent field is 11111111, the number represents infinity.

• Can be positive or negative (per sign bit).
Subnormal

• If exponent field is 00000000, the number is not normalized. This

means that the implicit 1 is not present before the binary point. The
exponent is −126.
• N = (-1) S ´ 0. fraction ´ 2-126.
• Extends the range into very small numbers.
• Example: 00000000000001000000000000000000.
0.00001two ´ 2-126 = 2-131

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 Representing Text: ASCII Code

To represent other types of data, such as text, we devise various coding

schemes.
ASCII is a 7-bit code representing basic letters, digits, punctuation,...
A portion of the ASCII table is shown below.

7b binary character 7b binary character

011 0000 0 100 0101 E
011 0001 1 110 0101 e
010 0001 ! 010 0000 space
010 0011 # 000 1010 linefeed

See complete table in Appendix E.

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 Hexadecimal Notation: Binary Shorthand

To avoid writing long (error-prone) binary values, group four bits together
to make a base-16 digit. Use A to F to represent values 10 to 15.
binary hexadecimal decimal binary hexadecimal decimal
(base 2) (base 16) (base 10) (base 2) (base 16) (base 10)
0000 0 0 1000 8 8
0001 1 1 1001 9 9
0010 2 2 1010 A 10
0011 3 3 1011 B 11
0100 4 4 1100 C 12
0101 5 5 1101 D 13
0110 6 6 1110 E 15
0111 7 7 1111 F 15

Ex: Hex number 3D6E easier to communicate than binary

0011110101101110.

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 Converting from binary to hex

Starting from the right, group every four bits together into a hex digit.
Sign-extend as needed.

This is not a new machine representation or data type,

just a convenient way to write the number.

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© McGraw Hill 38
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© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.