Module-1 8 hours

Introduction to Operating Systems, System Structures:

What operating systems do; Computer System organization; Computer System
architecture; Operating System structure; Operating System operations;
Process management; Memory management; Storage management;
Protection and Security; Distributed system; Special-purpose systems;
Computing environments.

Operating System Services:

User - Operating System interface; System calls; Types of system calls; System
programs; Operating system design and implementation; Operating System
structure; Virtual machines; Operating System generation; System boot.

Text book 1: Chapter 1(1.1-1.12), Chapter 2(2.1-2.11)

RBT: L1, L2, L3
 Module-2 8 hours
Process Management
Process concept; Process scheduling; Operations on processes; Inter process
communication.
Multi-threaded Programming:
Overview; Multithreading models; Thread Libraries; Threading issues.
Process Scheduling:
Basic concepts; Scheduling Criteria; Scheduling Algorithms; Multiple-
processor scheduling; Thread scheduling.
Text book 1: Chapter-3(3.1-3.4)Chapter 4.1- 4.4), Chapter-5(5.1- 5.5
RBT: L1, L2, L3 Module-3 8 hours
Process Synchronization:
Synchronization: The critical section problem; Peterson’s solution;
Synchronization hardware; Semaphores; Classical problems of
synchronization.
Deadlocks:
Deadlocks; System model; Deadlock characterization; Methods for handling
deadlocks; Deadlock prevention; Deadlock avoidance; Deadlock detection and
recovery from deadlock.
Text book 1:Chapter-6(6.1-6.6) Chapter-7(7.1-7.7)
RBT: L1, L2, L3
 Module-4 8 hours
Memory Management:
Memory management strategies: Background; Swapping; Contiguous memory
allocation; Paging; Structure of page table; Segmentation.
Virtual Memory Management:
Background; Demand paging; Copy-on-write; Page replacement; Allocation of
frames; Thrashing.
Text book 1: Chapter-8(8.1-8.6), Chapter-9(9.1-9.6)
RBT: L1, L2, L3
Module-5 8 hours
File System, Implementation of File System:
File system: File concept; Access methods; Directory structure; File system
mounting; File sharing; Protection: Implementing File system: File system
structure; File system implementation; Directory implementation; Allocation
methods; Free space management.
Secondary Storage Structures, Protection:
Mass storage structures; Disk structure; Disk attachment; Disk scheduling;
Disk management; Protection: Goals of protection, Principles of protection,
Domain of protection, Access matrix.
Text book 1: Chapter-10(10.1 to 10.5),Chapter-11(11.1-11.5),
Chapter-12(12.1 to 12.5), Chapter-14(14.1-14.4)
RBT: L1, L2, L3
Course Learning Objectives (CLOs):

This course will enable students to:

• To demonstrate the need for OS and different types of OS.

• To discuss suitable techniques for management of different

resources.

• To demonstrate different APIs/commands related to processor,

memory, storage and file system management.
Course Outcomes (COs):
The students should be able to:

• Explain the structure and functionality of an operating systems.

• Apply appropriate CPU scheduling algorithms for the given

problem.

• Analyse the various techniques for process synchronization and

deadlock handling.

• Apply the various techniques for memory management.

• Explain file and secondary storage management strategies.

• Describe the need for information protection mechanisms.

 Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security
Distributed Systems
Special-Purpose Systems
Computing Environments
 What is an Operating System?

Computer System = Hardware + Software

Software = Application Software + System Software(OS)

An Operating System is a system Software that acts as an

intermediary/interface between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware.

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
What happens when you run a program?
• A compiler translates high level programs into an executable (“.c” to “a.out”).

• The exe contains instructions that the CPU can understand, and data of the
program (all numbered with addresses).

• Instructions run on CPU: hardware implements an instruction set architecture

(ISA).

• CPU also consists of a few registers, e.g., – Pointer to current instruction

(program counter or PC) – Operands of instructions, memory addresses.

To run an exe, CPU

– fetches instruction pointed at by PC from memory.
– loads data required by the instructions into registers.
– decodes and executes the instruction.
– stores results to memory.

• Most recently used instructions and data are in CPU caches for faster access.
So, what does the OS do?
• OS manages program memory – Loads program
executable (code, data) from disk to memory.

• OS manages CPU – Initializes program counter

(PC) and other registers to begin execution.

• OS manages external devices – Read/write files

from disk.
 Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four

components:
Hardware – provides basic computing resources.
CPU, memory, I/O devices.
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware
among various applications and users.
Application programs – define the ways in
which the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users.
Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games.
Users
People, machines, other computers.
➢ Accessing computer resources is divided into layers.
➢ Each layer is isolated and only interacts directly with the layer
below or above it.

➢ If we install a new hardware device

✓ No need to change anything about the user/applications.
✓ However, you do need to make changes to the operating
system.
✓ You need to install the device drivers that the operating system
will use to control the new device.

➢ If we install a new software application

✓ No need to make any changes to your hardware.
✓ But we need to make sure the application is supported by the
operating system
✓ user will need to learn how to use the new application.

➢ If we change the operating system

✓ Need to make sure that both applications and hardware will
compatible with the new operating system.
 What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view..

Users want convenience, ease of use.

Don’t care about resource utilization.

But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all

users happy.

Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated

resources but frequently use shared resources from servers.

Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life.

Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded

computers in devices and automobiles.
 Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources.
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use.

OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of
the computer.

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is

the kernel. Everything else is either a system program
(ships with the operating system) or an application program.
❖ The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's)
➢ No Operating System
➢ All programming was done in absolute machine language, often by wiring up plug-
boards to control the machine’s basic functions.

❖ The Second Generation (1955-1965)

➢ First operating system was introduced in the early 1950's.It was called GMOS
➢ Created by General Motors for IBM's machine the 701.
➢ Single-stream batch processing systems

❖ The Third Generation (1965-1980)

➢ Introduction of multiprogramming
➢ Development of Minicomputer

❖ The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)

➢ Development of PCs
➢ Birth of Windows/MaC OS
 Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware.

Initializes all aspects of system.
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution.
✓ Power on Switch sends electricity to the motherboard on a wire called the
Voltage Good line.

✓ If the power supply is good, then the BIOS (Basic Input/output System) chip
takes over. (BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM/EPROM (Erasable
Programmable Read-Only Memory) chip known as firmware on the PC
motherboard. )

✓ In Real Mode, CPU is only capable of using approximately 1 MB of memory

built into the motherboard.
✓
✓ The BIOS will do a Power-On Self Test (POST) to make sure that all hardware
are working.
✓ BIOS will then look for a small sector at the very beginning of your primary
hard disk called MBR.

✓ The MBR contains a list, or map, of all of the partitions on your computer‘s
hard disk (or disks).

✓ After the MBR is found the Bootstrap Loader follows basic instructions for
starting up the rest of the computer, including the operating system.

✓ In Early Kernel Initialization stage, a smaller core of the Kernel is activated.

✓ This core includes the device drivers needed to use computer‘s RAM chips.
 Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory.

Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles.

 Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.

Each device controller has a local buffer.

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its

operation by causing an interrupt.
 Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the

interrupted instruction.

Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is

being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.

A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an

error or a user request.

An operating system is interrupt driven.

 Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing registers and the program counter.

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

polling
vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action should be

taken for each type of interrupt.
 I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion.
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt.
Wait loop (contention for memory access).
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous
I/O processing.

After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
System call – request to the operating system to allow user to
wait for I/O completion.

Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating

its type, address, and state.

Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine

device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
 Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information

at close to memory speeds.

Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage

directly to main memory without CPU intervention.

Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte.
 Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can
access directly.
Random access
Typically volatile

Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides

large nonvolatile storage capacity.

Magnetic disks – Rigid metal or glass platters covered with

magnetic recording material.
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
The disk controller determines the logical interaction
between the device and the computer.
 Storage Hierarchy

Storage systems
organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility

Caching – copying
information into faster
storage system; main
memory can be viewed
as a cache for secondary
storage.
 Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware,
operating system, software).

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily.

Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there

If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there.

Cache smaller than storage being cached.

Cache management important design problem.
Cache size and replacement policy.
 Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes).
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well.

Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput.

2. Economy of scale.

3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance.

Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing

2. Symmetric Multiprocessing
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
 Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but
multiple systems working together.
Usually sharing storage via a
storage-area network (SAN).
Provides a high-availability service
which survives failures.
Asymmetric clustering has
one machine in hot-standby
mode.
Symmetric clustering has
multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each
other.
Some clusters are for high-
performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to
use parallelization.
 Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times.

Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute.

A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory.

One job selected and run via job scheduling.

When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job.
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches
jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing.

Response time should be < 1 second.

Each user has at least one program executing in memory process.

If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling.

If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run.

Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in

memory.
 Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware.

Software error or request creates exception or trap.

A trap (or an exception) is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error (for example, division by zero or
invalid memory access) or by a specific request from a user
program that an operating-system service be performed.

Other process problems include infinite loop, processes

modifying each other or the operating system.
 Operating-System Operations
To differentiate among various modes of execution, we need two separate
modes of operation:

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system

components.

User mode and kernel mode(or Supervisor mode/privilege

mode/System mode).

Mode bit provided by hardware of the computer to indicate the

current mode: kernel (0) or user (1)
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user mode
or kernel mode.

Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in

kernel mode.

System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to

user.
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode

▪ At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel mode.

▪ The operating system is then loaded and starts user applications in user
mode.

▪ Whenever a trap or interrupt occurs, the hardware switches from user

mode to kernel mode (that is, changes the state of the mode bit to 0).

▪ Thus, whenever the operating system gains control of the computer, it is

in kernel mode.

▪ The system always switches to user mode (by setting the mode bit to 1)
before passing control to a user program.
 Timer
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources.
A timer can be set to interrupt the computer after a specified period. by a
fixed-rate clock and a counter.
Set interrupt the computer after a specific period. The period may be
fixed (for example, 1/60 second) or variable (for example, from 1
millisecond to 1 second).

A variable timer is generally implemented by a fixed-rate clock and a

counter.

Operating system decrements counter.

When counter reaches zero, generate an interrupt.

Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program

that exceeds allotted time.
 Process Management

▪ A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work

within the system.

▪ Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

▪ Process needs resources to accomplish its task

▪ CPU, memory, I/O, files
▪ Initialization data

▪ Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable

resources.
 Process Management

▪ Single-threaded process has one program counter

specifying location of next instruction to execute.

▪ Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,

until completion.

▪ Multi-threaded process has one program counter per

thread.

▪ Typically system has many processes, some user, some

operating system running concurrently on one or more
CPUs.

▪ Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the

processes / threads.
The Operating System is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes.

 Suspending and resuming processes.

 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.

 Providing mechanisms for process communication.

 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.

 Debugging.
 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in
memory.

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
◦ Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users.
 Memory management activities
◦ Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom.
◦ Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory.
◦ Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed.
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
◦ Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file

◦ Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape

drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random).
 File-System Management
 A file is a collection of related information defined by its
creator.

 File systems provide the conventions for the encoding,

storage and management of data on a storage device such
as a hard disk.
◦ Files usually organized into directories.
◦ Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what.

◦ OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories.
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time.

 Proper management is of central importance.

 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms.
 OS activities
◦ Free-space management.
◦ Storage allocation.
◦ Disk scheduling.
 Some storage need not be fast
◦ Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape.
◦ Still must be managed – by OS or applications.
◦ Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and
RW (read-write.)
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
 Device controllers are components on the motherboard (or on
expansion cards) that act as an interface between the CPU
and the actual device.

 Device drivers, which are the operating system software

components that interact with the devices controllers.

 A special device (inside CPU) called the Interrupt

Controller handles the task of receiving interrupt requests
and prioritizes them to be forwarded to the processor.
It performs the following activities for device management.
➢Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system.
➢Designates a program responsible for every device known
as Input/output controller.
➢Decides which process gets access to a certain device and
for how long.
➢Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way.
➢Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.
 Protection – Any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS.

 Security – Defense of the system against internal and external attacks.

◦ Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service.

 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can

do what.
◦ User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user.

◦ User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control.

◦ Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file.

◦ Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more

◦ rights.
 A user interface (UI) controls how you enter data and instructions and
how information is displayed on the screen.
 There are two types of user interfaces
1. Command Line Interface. In a command-line interface, a user types
commands represented by short keywords or abbreviations or presses
special keys on the keyboard to enter data and instructions.

2. Graphical user Interface. With a graphical user interface (GUI), you

interact with menus and visual images.
1. Batch Operating System
2. Multiprogramming Operating System
3. Time-Sharing OS
4. Multiprocessing OS
5. Distributed OS
6. Network OS
7. Real Time OS
8. Embedded OS
 The users of this type of Operating System does not interact
with the computer directly.

 Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch

cards and submits it to the computer operator.

 There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same

requirement and group them into batches.
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
➢ Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when
it is in queue.
➢ Multiple users can share the batch systems.
➢ The idle time for the batch system is very less.
➢ It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

➢ The computer operators should be well known with batch systems.
➢ Batch systems are hard to debug.
➢ It is sometimes costly.
➢ The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.

Examples of Batch based Operating System:

IBM's MVS
 This type of OS is used to execute more than one jobs
simultaneously by a single processor.

 It increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU

always has one job to execute.

 Multiprogramming operating systems use the mechanism of job

scheduling and CPU scheduling.
 Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly.
 These systems are also known as Multi-tasking Systems.

 The task can be from a single user or different users also.

 The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum.

 After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
 Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
➢Each task gets an equal opportunity.
➢Fewer chances of duplication of software.
➢CPU idle time can be reduced.

 Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

➢Reliability problem.
➢One must have to take care of the security and integrity of
user programs and data.
➢Data communication problem.

 Examples of Time-Sharing Oss

Multics, Unix, etc.
 Multiprocessor operating systems are also known as parallel OS or
tightly coupled OS.

 Such operating systems have more than one processor in close

communication that sharing the computer bus, the clock and
sometimes memory and peripheral devices.

 It executes multiple jobs at the same time and makes the processing
faster.

 It supports large physical address space and larger virtual address

space.

 If one processor fails then other processor should retrieve the

interrupted process state so execution of process can continue.

 Inter-processes communication mechanism is provided and

implemented in hardware.
 Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with
each other using a shared communication network.

 Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU.

 These are referred to as loosely coupled systems.

 Examples:- Locus, DYSEAC
 These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions.

 These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers,

security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private
network.

 The “ other" computers arc called client computers, and each computer that
connects to a network server must be running client software designed to
request a specific service.

 popularly known as
 tightly coupled systems.
Advantages of Network Operating System:
➢ Highly stable centralized servers.
➢ Security concerns are handled through servers.
➢ New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated
into the system.
➢ Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types
of systems.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

➢ Servers are costly.
➢ User has to depend on a central location for most operations.
➢ Maintenance and updates are required regularly.

Examples of Network Operating System are:

➢ Microsoft Windows Server 2003/2008/2012,
➢ UNIX, Linux,
➢ Mac OS X,
➢ Novell NetWare, and BSD, etc.
 These types of OSs serve real-time systems.

 The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small.

 This time interval is called response time.

 Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are
very strict like
➢ missile systems,
➢ air traffic control systems,
➢ robots, etc.
 An embedded operating system is one that is built into the circuitry of an
electronic device.
 Embedded operating systems are now found in automobiles, bar-code
scanners, cell phones, medical equipment, and personal digital
assistants.

 The most popular embedded operating systems for consumer products,

such as PDAs, include the following:
➢ Windows XP Embedded.

➢ Windows CE .NET:- it supports wireless communications, multimedia

and Web browsing. It also allows for the use of smaller versions of
Microsoft Word, Excel, and Outlook.

➢ Palm OS:- It is the standard operating system for Palm-brand PDAs

as well as other proprietary handheld devices.

➢ Symbian:- OS found in “ smart” cell phones from Nokia and Sony

Ericsson.
 Desktop Class
❖Windows
❖OS X
❖Unix/Linux
❖Chrome OS

 Server Class
❖Windows Server
❖Mac OS X Server
❖Unix/Linux

 Mobile Class
❖Android
❖iOS
❖Windows Phone
 Stand-alone general purpose machines.

 But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the

Internet).

 Portals provide web access to internal systems.

 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals.

 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks.

 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use

firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks.
 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc.

 What is the functional difference between them and a

“traditional” laptop?

 Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope).

 Allows new types of apps like augmented reality.

 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for

connectivity.

 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android.

 Distributed computing
◦ Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together.
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

◦ Network Operating System provides features between systems

across network.
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages.

 Illusion of a single system.

Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs.

Many systems now servers, responding to requests

generated by clients.

 Compute-server system provides an interface to client to

request services (i.e., database).for ex read data.

 File-server system provides interface for clients to create,

update, read, store and retrieve files.
Ex: A web server that delivers files to clients running web
browsers.
  Another model of distributed system.

 P2P does not distinguish clients and

servers.
◦ Instead all nodes are considered peers.
◦ May each act as client, server or both.
◦ To participate in a P2P system, a Node
must join P2P network.

Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or

Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service

via discovery protocol.
Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice over IP (VoIP)
such as Skype.
 Allows Operating Systems to run applications within other OSes.
◦ Vast and growing industry.

 Emulation used when source CPU type different from target type
(i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86).
◦ Generally slowest method.
◦ When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation.

 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest OSes

also natively compiled.
◦ Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS.
◦ VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization services.
 Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes
for exploration or compatibility.
◦ Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest.

◦ Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple

systems.

◦ Executing and managing compute environments within data

centers.

◦ QA testing applications without having multiple systems.

 VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
◦ There is no general purpose host then (VMware ESX and
Citrix XenServer).
 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a
network.

 Logical extension of virtualization because it uses

virtualization as the base for it functionality.
◦ Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual
machines, petabytes of storage available across the Internet,
pay based on usage.

 Many types
◦ Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay.
◦ Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own
use.
◦ Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud
components.
 Many types
◦ Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay.
◦ Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own
use.
◦ Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud
components.

◦ Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications

available via the Internet (i.e., word processor).
◦ Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for
application use via the Internet (i.e., a database server).
◦ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage
available over Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use).
 Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,
plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools.
◦ Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls.
◦ Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications.
 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of
computers.
◦ Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS,
real-time OS
◦ Use expanding.

 Many other special computing environments as well.

◦ Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS.

 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints.

◦ Processing must be done within constraint.
◦ Correct operation only if constraints met.
 Operating systems made available in source-code format
rather than just binary closed-source.

 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights

Management (DRM) movement.

 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has

“copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL).

 Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including

core of Mac OS X), and many more.

 Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows),

Virtualbox (open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com.)
◦ Use to run guest operating systems for exploration.