History of Relational Data Model

➢ First introduces by Ted Codd (in 1970)

➢ Uses Concept of mathematical relation
➢ First commercial implementations of the relational Model->
➢ Oracle DBMS,SQL/DS system by IBM
➢ Current popular RDBMS s->SQL Server & Access (Microsoft),
DB2 & Informix(IBM) etc
➢ Standard for commercial RDBMS –>SQL query Language
❖ Terminologies
➢ Relational Model represents data as collection of
tables.
➢ A Table is also called a relation
➢ Each row → tuple
➢ Column headers →attributes Attributes
Relation Name

Student RollNo Name Age Phone

1 Preeti 34 9878672345
Tuples
2 Ishani 14 8976753452
❖ Terminologies

➢Domain:
• A set of atomic values allowed for an attribute

• Eg: Employees ages: Possible ages of employees

of a company (values between 20 & 70 year old)
❖ Terminologies

➢Relation Schema:
• Describes a relation
• Made up of a relation name R and a having a list
of attributes A1,A2,A3……………..An

STUDENT(Name,Rollno,Age,Address,Phone,Grade)
STUDENT(Name
string:,Rollno:integer,Age:integer,Address:string,Ph
one:integer,Grade: string)
Relational Data Model

➢ Degree (or arity of a relation):

• Number of attributes in a relation
schema

STUDENT(Name,Rollno,Age,Address,Phone,Grade)
Terminologies

➢ Cardinality:
• Total number of tuples present in a
relation schema

STUDENT ROLL_No NAME AGE PHONE

1 Preeti 34 9878672345
Cardinality =3 2 Ishani 14 8976753452
3 Sonal 18 7895354615
Terminologies

➢ Relational database Schema:

• Is a set of relation schemas and a set of
integrity constraints.

➢ Relational State(or Relation Instance:

• Is a set of tuples at a given moment of
time
Characteristics of Relation

➢ Ordering of Tuples within a Relation:

• A relation is a set of tuples .

• Tuples in a relation need not have any

particular order.
Characteristics of Relation

➢ Ordering of Values within a Tuple:

• An n-tuple -> ordered list of n values ,
so ordering of values in a tuple is
important.
• With an alternative definition of
relation , ordering of values in a tuple is
unnecessary
 Characteristics of Relation

➢ Ordering of Values within a Tuple:

• A tuple -> set of (<attribute>,
<value>) pair , then ordering of
attribute is not important
 Characteristics of Relation
➢ Values & Nulls in a Tuple:
o Each value in a tuple is an atomic
value i,e it does not have
composite values . We should have
FLAT
o Nulls : unknown or not applicable
 Characteristics of Relation
➢ Interpretation of a relation:
o The relation schema can be
represented as a declaration or
assertion
o Each tuple can be interpreted as
fact
KEYS of Relation

➢ PRIMARY KEY

➢ CANDIDATE KEY

➢ ALTERNATE KEY

➢ COMPOSITE KEY

➢ FOREGIN KEY

➢ SUPER KEY
Relational Model Constraints
➢ Constraints on databases:
• Inherent Model - Based: Inherent in the model(Already existing )
• Eg: duplicate records are not allowed
➢ Schema based:
• Defined directly in the schemas of the data model
• Eg: Age of an employee should be between 25-65
➢ Application based:
• Must be expressed and enforced by the application programs.
 CONSTRAINTS
The Constraints can be placed at the column level or table level.

Column Level Constraint: These constraints are defined along with the column
definition . These constraints can be applied to any one column at a time. If the
constraints spans across multiple columns , then the table level constraints are
used.

Table Level Constraint: If the data constraint attached to a specific cell in a table
references the content of another cell in the table then the table level constraint
is used.

16
Relational Model Constraints: Schema Based
Constraints
➢ Domain Constraints

➢ Key Constraints

➢ Constraints on NULL

➢ Entity Integrity Constraint

➢ Referential Integrity Constraint

Schema Based Constraints

➢ Domain Constraints
o It specifies that within each tuple or within each row the value of
an attribute has to be atomic or individual.
o Performs the datatype check of each attribute.
STUDENT ROLL_No NAME AGE
1 Preeti 34
2 Ishani 14
3 Sonal A
Violates Domain
Constraint
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Key Constraints
o An attribute that can uniquely identify each tuple in a relation is
called a Key

STUDENT ROLL_No NAME AGE

1 Preeti 34
2 Ishani 14
3 Ishani 14
Key Constraints

There are a number of key constraints in SQL that ensure

that an entity or record is uniquely or differently identified in
the database. There can be more than one key in the table
but it can have only one primary key.
Some of the key constraints in SQL are :
➢ Primary Key Constraint
➢ Foreign Key Constraint
➢ Unique Key Constraint

20
CONSTRAINTS

21
 Add/Remove Constraints
• After you create a table, you can use the Alter Table statement to
• add or remove a primary key, unique, foreign key, or check constraint

• To drop a table's primary key constraint, just specify the Primary Key keywords:
Alter Table Sale
Drop Primary Key

• To drop a unique, foreign key, or check constraint, you must specify the
constraint name:

Alter Table Sale

Drop Constraint SaleCustomerFK

• To add a new constraint, use the same constraint syntax as in a Create Table
statement:
Alter Table Sale
Add Constraint SaleSaleTotChk Check( SaleTot >= 0 )
22
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Super Key Constraints

o A super key specifies that no two tuples can have the same
value
o Every relation has at least one superkey – set of all attributes.

STUDENT ROLL_N NAME AGE Mail_Id

o
1 Preeti 34 [email protected]
2 Ishani 14 [email protected]
3 Sonal 14 [email protected]
Schema Based Constraints

➢ A Key Constraints satisfies 2 constraints:

o Two tuples cannot have identical values for all the attributes in
the key.
o It is minimal superkey
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Candidate Keys:
o Set of attributes that uniquely identify the tuples in a relation.
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Constraints on NULL Values

o Specifies whether null values are permitted or not(NOT NULL)
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Entity Integrity Constraint:

o States that no primary key value can be null
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Referential Integrity Constraint:

o Specified between two relations

o States that a tuple in one relation

that refers to another relation must
refer to an existing tuple in that
relation.
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Foreign Key must satisfy the

following:
o Same domain

o Value of FK in a tuple either occurs

as a value of PK i.e
t1[FK]=t2[PK] or isnull
Schema Based Constraints

➢ Foreign Key must satisfy the

following:
o Same domain

o Value of FK in a tuple either occurs

as a value of PK i.e
t1[FK]=t2[PK] or isnull
CHECK CONSTRAINT

Business Rule validations can be applied to a table column by using

CHECK constraint . CHECK constraint must be specified as a logical
expression that evaluates either to TRUE or FALSE.

It takes substantially longer to execute as compared to NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY or UNIQUE. Thus check constraints must
be avoided if the constraint can be defined using the Not Null,
Primary key or Foreign key constraint.
 CHECK CONSTRAINT
AT Column level
Synatx: <column name><datatype>(<size>) CHECK (<Logical Expression>)
At TABLE LEVEL
CHECK(Logical Expression>
A CHECK integrity constraint requires that a condition be TRUE OR UN KNOWN
for the row to be processed.
ACHECK constraint has the following limitations:
➢ The condition must be a Boolean expression that can be evaluated
using the values in the row being inserted or updated.
➢ The condition cannot include the SYSDATE, UID ,USER or
USERENV SQL functions.
➢ A check constraint can NOT be defined on a SQL View.
➢ The check constraint defined on a table must refer to only
CHECK CONSTRAINT

Data values being inserted into the column CUST_NO must start with the capital
letter C

Data values being inserted into the column FNAME, MNAME and LNAME should
be in UPPERCASE

CREATE TABLE CUST_MSTR(CUST_NO VARCHAR2(10), FNAME VARCHAR2(25)

CHECK (CUST_NO LIKE ’ C%’), CHECK(FNAME=UPPER(FNAME))
CHECK CONSTRAINT

CREATE TABLE employees ( employee_id INT NOT NULL,

last_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL, first_name VARCHAR(50),
salary MONEY, CONSTRAINT check_employee_id CHECK
(employee_id BETWEEN 1 and 10000) );

CREATE TABLE employees ( employee_id INT NOT NULL, last_name

VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL, first_name VARCHAR(50), salary MONEY, CONSTRAINT
check_salary CHECK (salary > 0) );
CHECK CONSTRAINT
CREATE TABLE suppliers
( --insert into suppliers values(101,'XYZ')
--insert into suppliers values(999,'abc')
supplier_id numeric(4), --insert into suppliers values(100,'XYZ')
supplier_name varchar2(50), insert into suppliers values(11,'XYZ')

CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id ORA-02290: check constraint

CHECK (supplier_id BETWEEN 100 and 999) (SQL_OQWECISXRJQQVHFYUMWHY
ESUK.CHECK_SUPPLIER_ID) violated
); ORA-06512: at "SYS.DBMS_SQL",
line 1721
CHECK CONSTRAINT
Using an ALTER TABLE statement

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK

(column_name condition);

ALTER TABLE employees ADD CONSTRAINT check_last_name

CHECK (last_name IN ('Smith', 'Anderson', 'Jones'));
CHECK CONSTRAINT

Using an ALTER TABLE statement

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

Enable a Check Constraint

ALTER TABLE table_name WITH CHECK CHECK CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

ALTER TABLE employees WITH CHECK CHECK CONSTRAINT check_salary;

Disable a Check Constraint

ALTER TABLE table_name NOCHECK CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

ALTER TABLE employees NOCHECK CONSTRAINT check_salary;
CHECK CONSTRAINT
➢ Any predicate can go into a CHECK() constraint
– CHECK (sex IN (0,1,2,9))
– CHECK (birthdate < CURRENT_TIMESTAMP)
– CHECK (IQ >= 0)
– CHECK (birthdate < hire_date)
– CHECK (partcode LIKE ‘P-%’)
– CHECK (x BETWEEN 0 and 42)
➢ Remember that a smart optimizer will put all these
constraints into the execution plan
➢ TRIGGERs and STORED PROCEDUREs tell the optimizer
nothing
NULL Constraint
A NULL value is different from a blank or a zero. A NULL value cn be inserted
into columns of any datatype.

Principle of NULL Values

➢ Setting a NULL value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown, or
when a value would not be meaningful.
➢ A NULL value is not equivalent to a value of zero if the data type is
number and is not equivalent to spaces if the data type is character
➢ A NULL value will evaluate to NULL in any expression(NULL*10 is
NULL)
➢ NULL value can be inserted into columns of any datatype.
➢ If the column has a NULL value, Oracle ignores any UNIQUE, FOREIGN
NOT NULL Constraint

➢ NOT NULL constraint can be applied at Column level.

➢ NOT NULL column constraint ensures that a table column can not
be left empty. It becomes mandatory

Synatx: <Column Name><DataType>(<Size> NOT NULL

Foreign Key with ON DELETE CASCADE

Use the ON DELETE CASCADE option to specify whether you want

rows deleted in a child table when corresponding rows are deleted in the
parent table. If you do not specify cascading deletes, the default
behavior of the database server prevents you from deleting data in a
table if other tables reference it.
Foreign Key
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(1, 'ISHANI')
CREATE TABLE student1 INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(2, 'ATHARV')
(student_num number(4) PRIMARY KEY, INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(3, 'SIMRAN')
student_name VARCHAR2(25))
INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(1, 101)
CREATE TABLE hostel_info2(s_num number(4) INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(2, 102)
REFERENCES student1(student_num),roomno INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(3, 103)

number(4))
DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE
STUDENT_NUM=2
select * from hostel_info
ORA-02292: integrity constraint
(SQL_OQWECISXRJQQVHFYUMWHYESUK.SYS_C0078555716) violated - child
record found ORA-06512: at "SYS.DBMS_SQL", line 1721
Foreign Key with ON DELETE CASCADE

INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(1, ‘RAM')

CREATE TABLE student INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(2, ‘IRA')
(student_num number(4) PRIMARY KEY, INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(3, ‘RANU')
student_name VARCHAR2(25))

INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(1, 101)

CREATE TABLE hostel_info INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(2, 102)
(student_num number(4), INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO VALUES(3, 103)
roomno number(4),
FOREIGN KEY (student_num) REFERENCES student
ON DELETE CASCADE); DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE
STUDENT_NUM=2
Successfully done
select * from hostel_info
Foreign Keys with "set null on delete
A foreign key with "set null on delete" means that if a record in the
parent table is deleted, then the corresponding records in the child
table will have the foreign key fields set to null. The records in the
child table will not be deleted.
 Foreign Keys with "set null on delete
CREATE TABLE student4(student_num number(4) PRIMARY
KEY,student_name VARCHAR2(25)) INSERT INTO STUDENT4 VALUES(1, 'RAM')
--INSERT INTO STUDENT4 VALUES(2, 'GAURAV')
--INSERT INTO STUDENT4 VALUES(3, 'SIMRAN')
CREATE TABLE hostel_info4(s_num number(4) REFERENCES
student4(student_num) on delete set null,roomno number(4));
INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO4 VALUES(1, 101)
--INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO4 VALUES(2, 102)
delete from student4 where student_num=2 --INSERT INTO HOSTEL_INFO4 VALUES(3, 103)
Select * from hostel_info4
Select * from student4

STUDENT_ STUDENT_ S_NUM ROOMNO

NUM NAME 1 101
1 RAM - 102
3 SIMRAN 3 103