Boardworks GCSE Science: Chemistry

Earth’s Structure

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How has the Earth changed? What is the Earth made from?
If it was possible to dig to the centre
of the Earth, what would you find?
You would dig through three sections:
 crust – the rocky, outer layer
beneath your feet.
 mantle – the semi-liquid, very high temperature layer
below the crust. The cooler section near to the crust is
less mobile than the hotter section next to the core
(known as the asthenosphere).
 core – the layer at the centre of the Earth. This layer is
divided into two sections: the liquid, outer core and the
solid, inner core.

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Cross-section of the Earth

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 Boardworks GCSE Science: Chemistry
Earth’s Structure

How does the Earth’s surface change? Introducing plate tectonics

The shapes and positions of
the continents make up a
very familiar image.
The Earth’s surface is a very
dynamic place and has not
always looked like this.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity and other phenomena have
been changing the face of the planet for millions of years.
The key geological theory that explains how the Earth’s
surface changes now and has changed in the past is called
plate tectonics.
So what exactly is the theory of plate tectonics and how
was it developed?

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Have the continents moved? How was Wegener’s theory developed?

Alfred Wegener was a key figure in

changing ideas about the Earth’s
surface. In 1912, he proposed that all
the continents were once joined in a
single supercontinent, called Pangaea.
Wegener suggested that Pangaea
began to break up about 200 million
years ago and the pieces drifted apart
to form the present day continents.
At the time, Wegener’s theory of
‘continental drift’ was dismissed by
geologists because he could not
provide a convincing explanation for
how the continents were able to move.

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How have the continents changed? What is seafloor spreading?

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 Boardworks GCSE Science: Chemistry
Earth’s Structure

What is the theory of plate tectonics? What are the major tectonic plates?
The explanation for how the continents move came from
observations of seafloor spreading and other effects. In 1967,
these ideas were linked in the theory of plate tectonics.
According to this theory,
the Earth’s crust is like
a jigsaw puzzle made
up of giant sections
called tectonic plates.
These plates ‘float’ on
top of the mantle and
so can move around
the Earth’s surface.
There are 10 major tectonic plates and several minor plates.

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What is a plate boundary? Identifying plate boundaries

The area where two tectonic plates meet is called a plate
boundary. Mountains, volcanoes and oceanic trenches
are formed at plate boundaries, and earthquakes are more
likely to occur here.
continental
trench crust

There are three types of plate boundary: constructive,

destructive and conservative. Each type is characterized by
how the plates and the geological effects of this movement.

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Effects of tectonic plate movements How do tectonic plates move?

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 Boardworks GCSE Science: Chemistry
Earth’s Structure

Plate tectonics – true or false? Key points about plate tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics explains the movement of,
and changes to, the Earth’s crust. The key points are:
 The Earth's surface is made up of several huge
tectonic plates (like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle) that are
continually moving.
 The ocean floors are continually moving, spreading from
the centre and sinking at the edges.
 Earthquakes and volcanoes occur at plate boundaries,
where the tectonic plates meet.
 Convection currents in the mantle move the tectonic
plates on the Earth’s surface. The source of the heat
driving the convection currents is radioactive decay
deep within the Earth’s core.
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Where do rocks come from?

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How are volcanoes formed? Classifying volcanoes types

Volcanoes form where molten rock (magma) from the mantle
pushes upwards through weaknesses in the Earth’s surface.
Magma that reaches the surface is known as lava.

crater

lava

central vent

strata (layers)

magma chamber

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Earth’s Structure

What happens when magma cools? How does cooling affect crystal size?
As magma from the Earth’s mantle cools, it solidifies and Magma is full of minerals that turn into crystals under the
crystallizes to form igneous rocks. Granite, basalt and right conditions. The size of the crystals in an igneous rock
obsidian are examples of igneous rocks. is related to the rate at which the molten magma cools.
Rocks formed when If magma cools quickly, quick
expelled lava cools the crystals do not have cooling
on the Earth’s surface very much time to form
are called extrusive and so are small in size.
igneous rocks. Basalt has small crystals.
When magma cools On the other hand, if slow
below the Earth’s magma cools slowly, the cooling
surface, intrusive crystals have more time to
igneous rocks are grow and so are large.
formed. Granite has large crystals.

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How are different igneous rocks formed?

Are these igneous rocks formed by quick or slow cooling?
rhyolite granite

Rocks from
low-silica lava

quick cooling slow cooling

basalt gabbro

Rocks from
high-silica lava

quick cooling slow cooling

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Are tectonic plates dangerous? Can earthquakes be predicted?

Although tectonic plates move In the past, only a handful of earthquakes have ever been
very slowly, they can have accurately predicted. However, as technology improves,
devastating effects when plate scientists are becoming more accurate in their predictions,
boundaries are very active. which are based on a number of indicators.
Which hazardous geological In 1975, the population of the Chinese city
phenomena are more common of Haicheng were successfully evacuated
near plate boundaries? the day before a major earthquake.
 earthquakes This occurred after scientists observed
 tsunamis (triggered by underwater earthquakes) changes in:
 volcanic eruptions  tectonic plate activity
 lahars (mud slides caused by lava melting snow)
 geysers (geothermal vents)  land elevation
 sulfur dioxide gas  unusual animal behaviour.

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Can eruptions be predicted? Why are predictions hard to make?

Scientists who study volcanoes
are called volcanologists.
They are skilled at monitoring
the changes in active volcanoes
that can indicate when an
eruption might occur.
Monitoring equipment is very
expensive and there are not
enough resources to keep check
of every active site in the world.
This means that volcanologists
cannot always pinpoint exactly
when an eruption may happen.

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Can volcanoes have benefits? Why do people live at plate boundaries?

Volcanoes can be extremely Many people chose to live in
destructive but they are also areas where earthquakes or
a creative force. volcanic eruptions are a threat,
despite the risks involved.
When volcanic lava cools
and solidifies, new land Why might people do this?
mass is created.  The soil is often more fertile.
The lava is weathered and  The area attracts tourists.
breaks down into a fine soil,
which is often very fertile.  Power is easily obtained
from geothermal vents.
Volcanoes also produce and
transport igneous rocks,  Their culture or religion is
which are useful building based around the area and
materials. they do not want to leave.

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How can geothermal energy be used? Geothermal energy

Iceland sits on the boundary of
the mid-Atlantic tectonic plates.
A plate boundary is not always a
peaceful place, but its location
does provide an endless supply
of energy.
Icelanders use hot water directly
from the Earth to heat their
homes and businesses.
The hot water is stored in huge
tanks on one of Reykjavik's few
hills. Gravity is then used to
distribute the water to the city.

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Earth’s Structure

Glossary (1/2)

 continental drift – The theory that the continents were

once all joined together and have slowly moved apart over
millions of years.
 convection currents – Circular currents in the mantle
created by the rising of hot magma and sinking of cool magma.
These currents cause tectonic plates to move.
 crust – The thin, rocky, outer layer of the Earth.
 igneous rock – The type of rock formed when magma
cools and solidifies.
 inner core – The solid, central region of the Earth, which is
mostly made of iron and nickel.
 mantle – The thick layer of the Earth made of very hot,
dense, flowing rock. It is between the crust and the outer core.

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Glossary (2/2) Anagrams

 outer core – The molten layer of the Earth that surrounds

the inner core and is mostly made of iron and nickel.
 Pangaea – The supercontinent made up of all the Earth’s
land masses, which existed about 200 million years ago.
 plate boundary – An area where tectonic plates meet and
interact, which affects the Earth’s surface.
 plate tectonics – The theory that the Earth’s surface is
made up of huge sections that are continually moving.
 seafloor spreading – The movement of two oceanic
plates away from each other, which results in the formation of
new oceanic crust and a mid-ocean ridge.
 tectonic plate – One of the huge sections of the Earth’s
surface that moves slowly over the mantle.

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Multiple-choice quiz

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