4.

1
MODULES*: ANALOG AND DIGITAL
4.1 MODERN
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Electrical còmnunlcation is a process by whlch the SCHEME COMMUNICATION
from on pèrson to another or from one
link. place to lnfornmation/message
another in the form of electrical
is
transmitted from one point to another,
signals through some
The process in electrical communlcation
communication
form. Abasic communication system systen1 involves sending, processing and recciving
to be transmitted passes through a consists of certain units called constituents / subsystems / information in electrical
stages. The information
number of stages of communication system prior it
Fig. 4.1 below shows the reaches its destination.
schematic block diagram of a basic
communicatlon system.
Noise

nformation nformation
source -Input
transducer Transmltter Channel Recclver Output Flnal
transducer destinaton

Mcssage Bascband
Transmltted Recelved Recelved
or
slgnal x() signal r(t) Baseband
Original
Message message
signal s() or
Message
signal s()
Fr.4.1: Block diagram ofa basic communicatlon ystem
The main constituents of a basic
communication system are,
() Infomation source and Input transducer
(ii) Transmitter
(iii) Channel/ Medium
(iv) Noise
(v) Recelver
(vi) Output transducer and Final destination
4.1.1 Information source and Input transducer
Generally, the first stage ofa communication system is the
"source is not electrical in nature. Hene an input transducer isinformation sourc. Thè message produced by an information
required for converting message into a time vaiying èlectrical
signalcalled message signal / boseband signal / intelligent signàl.
The information from the source may be either an analog signal (such as voice or
music) or a digital
signal (such as
output from a computer).
The message produced by the information source is applicd to the
an electrical signal corresponding to the infornmation contained in the
input transducer which converts the message into
message which iscalled nessage signal/baseband
signal and esignated by s().
4.1.2 Transmitter
The transmitter couples the input message signal to the channel. It is a collection
ofelectronic circuits which processes the
clectrical message signal from the output of the transducer into asignal suitable for transmission through a given mediun1
/ channel. The natüre of processing depends on the type of comnunication systenm.
4.2

There are 2optdons for prócessing signals in àtransmitter prior to the transmission.
() The báseband signal is transmitted without translating It to a higher frequency spectrum (Baseband
coimunicatíon system).
(I) The baseband signal is transmitted by translating it to a higher frequency spectrum (Carrier communication
system). Ahigherfrequency used is called carier signal. Theprocess of translating alow-írequency baseband
slgnal to higher frequency spectrum is called modulation.
In carrier communication system there are 2 types.
1) Analog communication system (Bascband signal is an analog signal)
2) Digital communication system (Baseband signal is a digital signal).
Fig. 4.2 below shows the block diagram ofa typical transmitter of an analog
communication system.
BasebaDd/
Messagesignal;
Modulator Voltage Power >To
Amplifers Ampliffer
medium/channel
Modulated Amplifier stages
signal x()
ct)

Carrier
Oscillator

Fig42: Block diagram ofa typlcal transmltter ofan anaiog communcatlon systet

The baseband/message aignal s(°) (the output of input transducer) is applied to the modulator: The modulator has
2 inputs.
) Base-band signal s()
(i) Carrier signal c(t)
Using carrier signal the baseband signal is tränslated to ahigher frequency spectYum. The baseband signal is called
modulating signal and the output of the modulator is called moduloted signol änd is designated as x(t).
The modulated signal x() is then amplified to drive the ast stage of ihe transmitter called power amplifier stage.The
poweramplifier stage amplifies the power of the modulated slgnal and this signal carries enoughpower and is passed to
the transmission medium /channel.
4.1.3Channel or Medium
The term channel impliés the medium through. which the message signal travels from transmiter to receiver. The
charaeteristics of the channel to be used add many constraints to the design of the communícation system because most
of the noise and disturbances are added othe mesage signal during the transmission through it.The transmitted signal.
shoutd haye adequate power to withstand the channel noise. The channel characteristics also impose constraints on the
bandwidth. The bandwidth is the frequèncy range that can be transmited by acommunication system.
Channels may be classified into 2,categories.
() Hardwired channel
(ii) Softwired channel
 4.3

4.1.3.1 Hardwired channel

Hardwired channels are man-made structure that are used as transmission medium in the coimmunication system.
The 3 possible impleméntations of the hardwired channels are,
() Transnission lines
(ii) Waveguides
(i) Optical iber cables
() Tänsmission lines
Examples for transmission lines are,
(a) Twisted pair cables (in landline telephony)
(b) Coaxial cables (in cable TV transmission).
lines unsuitable for use at frequencies above
There is a significant energyloss due to radiation that makes these
300 MHz(UHF)*.
() Waveguides
power transmissionatmicrowave frequencies (UHF).
These are extensively used to minimize losses and for high
rectangular box or cylinders through which modulated
These are hollow metallic conductor in the shape of
Thesignal entering the waveguide is reflected at
signal in the form of electromagnetic waves are propagated.
the waveguide.
the metallic walls and propagates toward the other end of
(1) Optical fiber cables (OFC)
typical diameter ranging from 0.05 to 0.25 mni
These are extreinely thin circutar solid or tubular pipés with a
modulated signal propagates through this fiber in the form
and are made up of highly pure glass or silica. The
of light energy.
there exista plysical link between the transinitter and
In general, in hardwired channel communication systen
system. Eg.: landline telephony, cable TV etc.
the receiver and such a system is called line com1munication
4.1,3.2 Softwired channel
transmission channel/
space) and sea wvater which can be used as the
There are certain natural resources like air (open
are called softwired channels.
medium to send modulated message signal. Such channels
physical link between the transmitter and the receiver.
In softwired channel comnunication system, there is no
transmitted in the form ofelectromagnetic waves / radio
In softwired channel communication system, the signals are
aspeed that of light (c=3x 10° m/s).
waves. Radio waves travel through air/ open space at
electromagneticwaves and radiates it using a transmiting
The transmitterconverts the electrical message signal intoelectromagneticvaves and convert them into corresponding
antenna.Arthe recever end, the receiving antenna picks up the
electrical sighal.
through air/ open space are called radio
System[ thát use electromagnetic waves / radio waves to transmit signals
comimunication system.
mobile communication etc.
Eg: Radio broadcast, TV transmission, satellite communication,

(Table 1)
* For classification of radio frequency spectrum, refer page 4.7
4:4

4.14 Noise
Nolse Is defined as any unwanted form of electrical energy that is present in communication sýstem dåe tÕ any cause.
kè, nolse is an electrical disturbancewhlch doesnot contáin any useful information. These noises àre unpredictable aDd
random in natúre and undesirable part ofa communication system.
Nolses may be classified into following 2categories,
(1) External noise
(2) Internal noise
4.1.4.1 External noise
This noise is introduced by the channel / medium, It is called èxternol noise
the receiver of a becáuse the chañnel/ medium is external to
communiation sýstem.
External noise can be classified into 3 groups.
.() Atmospheric / Static noise
(ti) Man-made /Industrial noise
(ili) Extraterrestrial / Space noise
()Amospheric / Static nolse
This noise is caued by lightning disçharges in
ín the atmoshere. These are electrical impulsesthunderstorms and other natural electrical disturbances oçcuring
which are random in nature and the energy is spread over a
wide fregquency range:The spurious
electromagnetic/
the earth in the samefashioi as the desirèd radio wavesradio waves gencrated due to this hoise propagates over.
of the samefreqüency:Accordingly ata
point, thé recciving antenna picks up both noise radiowave and message given'receiving
radiowave.
Since thisnoise is created by'nature, it is not possible to
destroy it. But the receivérwith good design.can be
used to reduce the adverse effect of
atmosphericnoise,
(i1) Man-made /Industrial noise
Thís noise is producèd by soures such as automobile ignition,
air-craft ignition, electric imators, switch gears,
leakage from high voltáge lines, flourèscent lights and numerous other heavy
produced by the arc discharge taking place.uring operations of these machins.electrical
Such
machines. This noise is
man-made noiseis most
íntensive in industrial areas, densely populated in urban and _uburban areas.
For this reason, generally the transmitters of communication systems are
installed away from the industrial
area,

(il) Extraterrestrial / Space noise

There are 2 types of extraterrestrial/space noise.
(a) Solar noise
This is the electrical encrgy emiiting from the sün, Under quiet conditions, thereis a steady radiation of
noise from the sun.This is beçau_e the sun is alarge body at very high temperature (exceeding 6000°C on
the surface) and radiates electrical energy in the form of noise over a very wide frequency range
including
the range used for radio communication. Therefore the electrical energy from 'the sun Is mixed with the
transmitting radio signal and appears as hoise.
(b) Cosniic noise
Distánt stars are also have high temperáture and therefore radiates electrical eneigy or noise over a wide
frequency range covering theRF spectruin. This noise is alsoistributed al1most uniformly over thé entire
sky. Galaxies are also the source of space noise. The noise from galaxies is ver÷ strong but weakens as it
reaches the earth due to the distance.
 4.5

4.1.4.2 Internal noise

The nolse which get generated within the recelver ofa communication system is called internal nolse.
Thereare 2 types.
O Thermal / Johnson's/White noise
() Shot noise / Transistor nolse.
(o) Thermal noise
impedance due to the
This is the random noise generated in a resistor or the resistive component ofa complex
atoms or molecules within a
rapid and random motion of electrons. Due to the thermal ènergy the electrons,
reslstor agitate and generate random electrical signals, which is noise.
The maximum noise power output P, ofa resistor is given by.
P kTB
.. ()
where, k = 138 x 10 /°K= Boltznann's constant
T= Absolute temperature in °K
B= Bandwidth
across the resistor.
This noise can be measured by connecting a high senstivity voltmeter
develops voltage across the resistor. This voltage
The random movement of electrons results tn a current and
is called noise voltage and is measured by an ac voltneter.
(u) Shot/ Translstor noise
(translstor). It ls caused by random
This noise results frón the shot effect present in all amplyfying device In CE amplifier) of an amplilfying
variations in the arrival ofelectrons (or holes) at the output electrode (collector
device. The varying noise current results in nolse voltage in the output circuit of the anplifying device. This
noise voltage gets amplified by the subsequent amplifying stages and when fed to a loud speaker causes noise
Hence the name shot noise.
-as though a shower of load shots were faling on a metal sheet.
4.1.4.3 Signalto Noise Ratin (SNR)
to the noise power,at a particiular point in the circuit. In
Signal tòNoise Ratio (SNR) is defined as the ratio ofsignal powernoise power at a particular point in a circuit.
other words, ít is the measure of the signal power relative to the
Thus,

where,V= signal voltage

& V =noise voltage.
developed across the same resistor R. It is desirable to
It ís assumed that both the signal and the noise voltages are
keep.the SNX as high as possible.
In decibels:

For example, Ifat a particular point the signal and noise voltages are 3.5 mV and 0.5 my. respectively then,

R-2019og-169 4B.
4.6

4.1.44 Noise Figure

The Nolse Flgure is defined as the ratio of the signal-to-noise power at the input of the circuit to the sígnal-to-noise power
at the output of the circuit. It is expressed as
power at the input of thé circult
S
Gpower at the output of the ciruit
IfF= 1,then the noise power introduced by the clrcuitis zero.
4.1.5 Receiver
A
receiver is an electronic circult whËch picks up any desired radio frequency signal (Le, modulated signal) and recovers
the original message signal.from it. The signal received by the receiver doesnot contain information in its original form
rather it is in modulated form. The receiver receives the transmitted signal and processes itto recover the original
baseband signal.
The block diagram ofa typical recciver is shown In Fig. 4.3.
Received
signal Front-end Voltage Power stt)
voltage Demodulator Final
r() amplifier amplifier ampli•ier: destination

Recovered
baseband signal
Flg4.3: BIock diagram ofa typicat necelver efan analog commånication systen,
The signal received by the recelver is, denoted by r) and this received signal r() contaíns both the transmitted
modulated signalx() and the noise n()added to it during transmission.The recetver separates the noise from the received
signal and theni recovers the originäl baseband signal by processing it.
The signal r() received by the recefver is very weak because the transmited signaB looses its strength during its
propagation through the channel.
At first stage, a voltage amplifier amplifies the réceived iweak signal r(t), so that it becoimes strong enough for
further procéssing. Thèn the reetvér recover's the origlnal bäseband signál by performing the operatión opposite to the
one performed by the trañsmitter section. The traDsmitter perlorms modulation on the basebånd signal to transtate it to
higher frequency spectrum from its low fréquency spectrum. In turn, the receiver jperforms an operation known as
demodulation which brings the ba_eband signal from the higher frequency spectrum to its original low-frequency
spectrum. The demoulation process renmoves the high frequency carrier from the received signal and retrieves the
original baseband signal, The recovered baseband signal is then transferred to the final destination.
4.1.6 Final destinatíon
The final,destination is the last stage in i communication system. The block diaram is shown in Fig, 4.4 below.

Recovercd
Output User
message transducer
signal st)
Orlginal
message

Fig.4.4: Bockdiagram offnal destunatlon ofa communication system

It consists of an output transducer to convert the original basebaid signal in electrical form to its ortginal form.
4.8

4.4 MODULATION
Modulation ts defined as the process by which some characteristics of ahigh frequency sine wave (the carrier signal) ls
varled inaccordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal (messagefbaseband/information signal) to
be transnítted.

Let the carrier'slgnal be c() =A,sin(a t+0)

where A, =peak /maximumi amplitude the carrier signal (V)
w angular frequency of the carier signal (rad/sec)
8,= phase angle of thecarrier signal (rad)
&let the modulating signal be x(0) =A cos(ot+.)
where x() =instantaneous value of the modulating signal
A =peak/ maximum value of the modulating signal
=angular frequency of the modulating signal
=phase angle of the modulating signal.
value of the modulating
If the amplitude (A )of the carrier signal c() is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
signal x(), then it is called omplitude modulation (AM).
of the modulating
Ifthe frequency (w,2nf) ofthe carrier signalis varied in accordance with the instantaneous value
signal x(). then it is calledfrequency modulation (EM).
modulating signal
If the phase (0) ofthe carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
x(), ther: it is called phase modulation (PM).
Both FM and PM are also called angle modulation.
4.4.1 Types of modulation
The types of modulation are given below.
Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Angle Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)

4.4.1,1 Need for módulation

1) to ensure appropriate antenna height
2) for narrow banding
3) for frequengy multiplexing
4) to ensure appropriate radiations &penetration
5) to ensure diffraction angle
6) to reduce noise &interference.,
 4.9.

44.1.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In anplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating/ message signal. The vartous wavefornsare shown in Fig, 4.5 below.
Amplitude

AAAAAAAANAAAAAAAAAOA. time

Amplitude Carrier Signal

time

Message Signal
Amplitude

time

Amplitude Modulated Signal

Flg.4.5: Waveforms ofAM
About Anplitude Modulation (AM)
" The frcquency and phase remnain the same.
It is cheaper.
" Modulated signal can be transmitted over long distances.
" it hasalower bandwidth.
"Bandwidth requirement is twice the highest modulating frequency.
" AM is möre suscepible to noise
" The' wastage of power is more asa majór pårt of the power is carried by the, carrier signal.
" AM transmitters änd receivers are less complex
"ThÇ received signal is of low quality.
" Ithasa relatively simple circuit design.
4.10

4.4.1,3 Frequency Modulation (FM) instantaneous value of the

modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance'with the
In frequency shonin Fig. 4.6 below.
modulating/ message signal. The various waveforms are
Amplitude Message Sígnal

time

Amplitude Carrier Signal

AAAAAMAAAAMAAAA. time

Frequengy Modulated Signal

Amplitude

Flg.4.6: Haveforms of FM
About Frequency Modulation (FM)
" In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified.
" The amplitude and phase'remain the same.
" FM is less prone to interference than AM.
FM is less suscepible to noise because infoYmation in an FM signal is transrHitted through varying the frequency,
and not the amplitude.
" It requires high bandwidth.
. There is no much.wastage of power as all the transmitted power is carried by the message signal.
It òperates in the upper VHFand UHF range.
" FM transmitters are more complex than AM ransmitters.
" The received signal is of high quality.
" It has asmaller range of transmission. It cannot tr£nsmit over long distances.
" It isa more costy method when conpared to AM.
" Ithas a complex circuit design.
 4.11

4.4.1.4 Phase Modulation (PM)

accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
Inphase modulation, the phase of the carriersignal is varled in
/message signal.
Amplitude
Message Signal

time

Amplitude Carrier Signal

time

Amplitude Phäse Modulated Signal

Fis.4.7: Waveforns of PM

44.1.5 Difference between AM and FM

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

Basis of Comparison
In AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal is In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is
Description modified in order to send the message. modified in order to send the message.
The frequenty and phase remain the same. The amplitude and phase remiain the same.
Frequency &Phase
Mid Frequency (MF)& High Frequency Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High
Frequency Range (HE) Frequency (UHF).
Bandwidth requirement is twice the sum
Bandwidth Bandwidth requirement is twice the bigh of the modulating signal frequency and the
Requiremnent est modulating frequency. frequency deviation.
AM is more susceptible to noise FM 0s less susceptible.to noise
Noi_e Interference It requires high bandwidth in the range of
It requíres low bandwidth in the range of
Bandwidth 10 kHz.
200 kHz.
The wastage of pover is more as a major There is no much wastage of power as al
transmitted power is carried by the mes
Wastage of Power partof thà power carried by the carrier
signal. sage signal.
AM transmitters and receivers are less FM transmitters and reçeiyers are nore
Coimplexity complex.
complx
The received signal is of low quality. The received signal is of high quality.
Signal Quality
it bas a larger transinission range. It hasa saller transmission range.
Transmission
It is chéaper. It is more costly.
Cóst
It has a relatively sinple circuit design. Ithäs a complex circuit design.
Circüitry Design