School of Medicine and Health Sciences

BMMT110 – A Level Mathematics 1

Topic 1A Lecture Notes

SET THEORY

January 13, 2025

Mr. M. Chipoka, Dr. J. Musonda, & Dr. C. Chileshe

PMMT100 – A Level Mathematics I 1

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

1. use standard set notation and representation,

2. classify sets and perform set operations,

3. know set laws and the algebra of sets,

4. understand and apply the counting principle for sets,

5. know sets of numbers and represent sets on the real line.

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Contents
1 Set Theory 1
1.1 Set notation & representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Special sets & set classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Set laws & the algebra of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Counting principle for sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Sets of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.1 Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.2 Sets on the number line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
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1 Set Theory
In mathematics, all concepts are governed by the principle of sets. For example, solving an equation x + 1 = 2
gives an answer 1; also, the solution of the equation x + 2 = 1 yields −1. The number 1 can be categorised, but
not limited to be called a natural number, and also as an integer. On the other hand, −1 does not qualify to
be called a natural number, but is a valid integer. Further, the linear inequality x + 3 ≥ 1 gives the solution
x ≥ −2, which is a set of possible solutions of the given problem. From the above simple illustrations, it is
worth noting that all numbers are categorised in what we call “sets”; and thus, it becomes essential to explore
this concept, even before any actual mathematics can be done.

1.1 Set notation & representation

Definition 1.1.1. We define a Set as a collection of well defined distinct objects or elements.

A set has its complete meaning if it is well defined. That is, if all required rules are followed.

Example 1.1.1. Let us have a glance at the two sets described below:

(i) A set of markers in a box.

(ii) A set of blue markers in a box.

We note from Example 1.1.1 above that Case (i) is a defined set, while Case (ii) represents a well defined set.
To denote a set, upper case letters are used; and lower case letters are used to denote elements belonging to a
set. For example, A, B, G, . . . can denote sets, and p, q, r, . . . can denote elements of a set.

Note 1.1.1. Elements of a set need not be restricted to alphabet letters only. A set can contain “anything” as
its elements.

Sets are usually represented in two forms:

1. Roster form: Elements of a set are listed down in the set. Examples include

A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}

and so on.

2. Set Builder notation: Here, a set is represented by describing its elements that all satisfy a given property.
That is, a set of the form

S = {x : x has a property P (x)}.

An example here would be:

Q = {y : y is an alphabet letter in the first 5}

Task 1.1.1. Try the task below on your own, making sure you give it a good attempt.

1. Represent the following sets in Roster form;

ˆ P = {y : y is a letter in the word DIGITS}

ˆ Q = {x : x is an integer and − 2 < x ≤ 3}

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ˆ R = {v : v is an even number between 13 and 18}

2. Write the following sets in set builder form;

ˆ X = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 17, 19, . . .}

ˆ Y = {a, e, i, o, u}
ˆ Z = {−3, −2, −1.0, 1, 2}

1.2 Special sets & set classification

There are three main sets which are considered to be special.

1. Empty set: This describes a set with zero or no elements in it. We denote it by ∅ or { }. E.g

ˆ A = {x : x ∈ R, x2 + 1 = 0}
ˆ B = {y : y ∈ N, y + 2 = 0}

2. Singleton set: Describes a set with only one element contained in it. E.g

ˆ Q = {g}
ˆ T = {v : v ∈ N, v 2 − 1 = 0}

3. Universal set: This is the set containing all elements of a given set(s).
We denote it as U or E. E.g, Given sets A = {2} and U = {1, 2}, this would visually be represented in a
venn diagram as shown below;

U A

Figure 1.2.1: Venn diagram representation of a universal set

Sets are classified in two ways;

1. Finite set: Refers to a set whose elements are countable. For example, M = {h, u, e, y} is a finite set since
its elements are countable; in this case, set M has 4 elements.

Note 1.2.1. The empty set is a finite set. Why? Try to investigate!!

Further, the number of elements in a given set is called the Cardinality of a set. For set M above, we
would denote it as |M | = 4 or n(M ) = 4.

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2. Infinite set: Refers to a set whose elements are not countable. In other words, a set is said to be infinite if
it has an unlimited number of elements. E.g the set V = {1, 2, 3, . . .} is infinite because it is not countable.
In other words, its cardinality is infinite; that is, |V | = ∞.

Note 1.2.2. The universal set can either be finite or infinite. Why? Give it a try!!

Task 1.2.1. Classify each of the given sets below as either finite or infinite, and clearly demonstrate your
reasoning with an explanation;

ˆ The set of all enrolled students at Unilus.

ˆ A = {1, 3, 5, . . .}

ˆ Set of all coordinate points (x, y) in the first quadrant of an XY − plane.

ˆ S = {e, i, j, d}

1.3 Set operations

Basic set rules are used to operate on sets. Let A and B denote two sets.

1. The Union of A and B is a set containing elements in A or B. That is,

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

2. We define an Intersection of sets A and B as the set of elements in both A and B. That is,

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

We can represent the two using Venn diagrams as shown below;

U U
A B A B

Figure 1.3.1: Venn diagram shading of A ∪ B Figure 1.3.2: Venn diagram shading of A ∩ B

Further operations on sets include the following:

1. The Complement of a set A, is the set of all elements in the universal set U except those in A itself. That
is,
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}.

Note 1.3.1. The complement of the complement of any set A is the set itself. That is, (A′ )′ = A. Why
? Try it !!

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2. The complement of set A relative to set B defines the Set Difference of A from B, which is the intersection
of sets B and A′ . Mathematically, we write this as

B − A ≡ B ∩ A′ = {x : x ∈ B and x ∈ A′ }.

Note 1.3.2. B − A ̸= A − B, and other notations used to denote the complement of a set are Ac and Ā.

Visually, the two can be represented as shown below:

U A U
A B

Figure 1.3.3: Venn diagram shading of A′ Figure 1.3.4: Venn diagram shading of B − A

Definition 1.3.1. Two sets A and B are said to be Disjoint if their intersection is empty. In simpler terms,
they are disjoint if they do not cross each other.

The venn diagram representation is given as follows:

U
A B

Figure 1.3.5: Venn diagram representation of disjoint sets: A ∩ B = ∅

Definition 1.3.2. Any given set A is termed a Subset of another given set B if every element in A is also
found in B. We denote this as A ⊂ B, or alternatively write B ⊃ A to say B contains A. We have its venn
diagram representation shown below:

ˆ A subset of the form described in Definition 1.3.2 is known as a Proper subset. E.g, if

A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2},

then we would say that B is a proper subset of A.

ˆ Any given set A is an Improper subset of a set B if it has the same or identical elements as B. E.g, if

X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {d, a, b, c},

then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A =⇒ A = B.

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A
B

Figure 1.3.6: Venn diagram representation of a proper subset

Remark 1.3.1. We take note of the following remarks;

1. Two sets are said to be equal if they are subsets of each other.

2. If any two given sets have the same exact elements, regardless of how the elements are ordered or arranged,
they are said to be equal.

3. Every set has two trivial subsets; the empty set and itself.

Note 1.3.3. Statements “same number of elements” and “same exact or identical elements” are not the same.
Why? Give it a try !!

1.4 Set laws & the algebra of sets

Laws of the algebra of sets allow us to easily workout complex questions on sets, and also simplify lengthy set
relations to relatively simpler ones. They can be easily summarised as shown below;

1. Identity Laws:

ˆ A∪∅=A
ˆ A∩U =A
ˆ A∩∅=∅
ˆ A∪U =U

2. Idempotent Laws:

ˆ A∩A=A
ˆ A∪A=A

3. Commutativity Laws:

ˆ A∩B =B∩A
ˆ A∪B =B∪A

4. Associativity Laws:

ˆ (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

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ˆ (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

5. Distributivity Laws:

ˆ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
ˆ A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

6. De Morgan’s Laws:

ˆ (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′
ˆ (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′

The above set laws (and other set relations) can be verified by applying the algebra of sets. There are two
methods which can be used to achieve this;

1. Element Method: Arbitrary sets of elements are assumed, and the given relation is verified by showing
equivalence of set expressions in the relation.

2. Proof Method: In this approach, a general proof for any given set(s) of elements is used. We do not
assume a particular example of a set/sets to verify equivalence of the given set relation.

Example 1.4.1. Evaluate the following examples:

1. Verify the distributive law A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) using the element method.

2. By applying the method of proof, verify the De–Morgan’s Law

(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′

Solution. To answer Part 1, let A = {2, 4, 8} , B = {3, 6, 2} and C = {1, 3}. Then

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = {2, 4, 8} ∪ ({3, 6, 2} ∩ {1, 3})

= {2, 4, 8} ∪ {3}
= {2, 3, 4, 8} (1.1)

Conversely,

(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) = ({2, 4, 8} ∪ {3, 6, 2}) ∩ ({2, 4, 8} ∪ {1, 3})

= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8} ∩ {1, 2, 3, 4, 8}
= {2, 3, 4, 8} (1.2)

Since Equation (1.1) = Equation (1.2), then by the element method, we verify that

A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C),

hence the proof.

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Now moving to Part 2, let us have x ∈ (A ∪ B)′ , where x is an arbitrary element. Then,

=⇒ x ∈
/ (A ∪ B)
=⇒ x ∈
/A or x ∈
/B
′
=⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ′
=⇒ x ∈ A′ ∩ B ′
∴ (A ∪ B)′ ⊆ A′ ∩ B ′ (1.3)

Conversely, suppose y ∈ A′ ∩ B ′ for some arbitrary element y. Then,

=⇒ y ∈ A′ and y ∈ B ′
=⇒ y ∈
/A or y ∈
/B
=⇒ y ∈
/ (A ∪ B)
=⇒ y ∈ (A ∪ B)′
∴ A′ ∩ B ′ ⊆ (A ∪ B)′ (1.4)

By applying the property of subsets, from Equations (1.3) and (1.4), we deduce that

(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B ′ ,

hence the proof.

Note 1.4.1. We note the following about the above concepts;

ˆ In set theory, Union ′′ ∪′′ means or, then Intersection ′′ ∩′′ means and.

ˆ When intersecting sets, we are finding common elements in all the given sets, while when taking the union
of sets, we are adding or putting together elements of the given sets.

Task 1.4.1. Apply both the element method and the proof method to verify the following set laws:

1. (A′ )′ = A

2. (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′

1.5 Counting principle for sets

When counting elements in sets, we apply the counting principle.

Proposition 1.5.1. Given two sets A and B, we count elements of their union usiing the counting principle
below;

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

Example 1.5.1. Given that n(A) = 120, n(B) = 80 and n(A ∩ B) = 60, then;

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

= 120 + 80 − 60
= 140

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1.6 Sets of numbers

In Mathematics, everything is done with respect to some defined set of numbers. And so, it becomes vital to
have knowledge of these sets of numbers. In this section, we shall have a look at these sets and explore their
various properties.

1.6.1 Hierarchy

There are many sets of numbers defined in number theory; but for this course, we shall only look at a major
few that highlight the beginning to understanding sets of numbers. Defined below are the said sets of numbers;

1. Natural Numbers: These are also referred to as counting numbers, and their set is given by

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}.

Note 1.6.1. Including zero(0) to N gives us Whole Numbers.

2. Integers: It combines whole numbers and their negative equivalents. This set is defined as

Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.

In some cases, we may only be interested in positive integers (denoted Z+ ), or negative integers (denoted
Z− ). We also note that zero (0) is a neutral integer; it is neither negative nor positive.

3. Rational Numbers: This set is defined as

 
a
Q = x : x = , a, b ∈ Z, b ̸= 0, gcd(a, b) = 1
b

1 2
Some examples are 2, , , 2.1, and so on.
3 7
Note 1.6.2. We note the following about this set;

ˆ gcd means greatest common divisor.

ˆ All integers are rational numbers. Why ? Try to know !!
ˆ Irrational Numbers are simply numbers which are not rational. Some examples of such numbers are
√ √
2, 5, π, e and so on.

4. Real Numbers: The set of real numbers defines all numbers on the real number line. They are defined in
intervals and their sets are given by

ˆ R is a set of real numbers x, such that x ∈ (Lℓ , Uℓ ), or Lℓ < x < Uℓ (open real interval).
ˆ R is a set of real numbers x, such that x ∈ [Lℓ , Uℓ ], or Lℓ ≤ x ≤ Uℓ (closed real interval).
ˆ R is a set of real numbers x, such that x ∈ (Lℓ , Uℓ ], or Lℓ < x ≤ Uℓ (half open/closed real interval).
ˆ R is a set of real numbers x, such that x ∈ [Lℓ , Uℓ ), or Lℓ ≤ x < Uℓ (half closed/open real interval).

where Lℓ and Uℓ denote the lower and upper limits of the intervals respectively. Examples of real intervals
include (−3, 9), [2, 6], (−∞, 6] and [0, ∞).

Note 1.6.3. Infinity (−∞ or ∞) is not a number, it only denotes an endless continuity of numbers.
Thus, we do not close an interval on the side that has an infinity sign.

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5. Complex Numbers: These numbers are also called imaginary numbers. They have the real part (a real
number) and imaginary part (real number with an i); and these are defined as

C = {z : z = a + bi, a, b ∈ R}

E.g z = 2 + i, z = −3i and so on.

Note 1.6.4. A complex number that does not show the real or imaginary part of it, has zero value on that
side of the number. E.g z = 2i = 0 + 2i.

The hierarchy of sets of numbers is summarised as given below:

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R⊂C

1.6.2 Sets on the number line

Just as in the case of finite sets, sets of real numbers (which are infinite) can also be operated on. The algebra
of sets and set laws also hold.
Example 1.6.1. Let U = R, A = [0, 6], B = (−2, ∞) and C = (−3, 4]. Find the following sets and display them
on the real line.
1. A ∩ C

2. B ∩ U

3. C ′ ∩ (A ∩ B)

4. C − (B ∪ C)
Solution. For Part 1, We first display the sets A and C on the real line as follows:

C
A

-3 0 4 6

Now taking the intersection of the above two sets we have the result as shown below:

A∩C

0 4

From the solution representation above, we have A ∩ C = [0, 4].

Task 1.6.1. Find the sets in questions 2, 3, and 4 of Example 1.6.1 and display them on the real number line.
1

1 End of Topic 1A Notes, January 13, 2025

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