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Module 3

The document provides an overview of three-dimensional structural representations in chemistry, including Fischer, Sawhorse, and Newman projections, along with their applications in identifying structural and stereo isomers. It also introduces pharmacology, explaining the nature of drugs, their active and inactive ingredients, and how they interact with proteins in the body to affect physiological functions. Additionally, it discusses the mechanisms of drug action, categorizing drugs as agonists or antagonists, and briefly mentions the synthesis of Paracetamol and Aspirin.

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12 views93 pages

Module 3

The document provides an overview of three-dimensional structural representations in chemistry, including Fischer, Sawhorse, and Newman projections, along with their applications in identifying structural and stereo isomers. It also introduces pharmacology, explaining the nature of drugs, their active and inactive ingredients, and how they interact with proteins in the body to affect physiological functions. Additionally, it discusses the mechanisms of drug action, categorizing drugs as agonists or antagonists, and briefly mentions the synthesis of Paracetamol and Aspirin.

Uploaded by

anjaysenthilkumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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S-14: Representation of three dimensional structures (Fisher,

sawhorse and Newmann projections with example each)

Structural isomers (definition, types- chain, position, functional isomers and


metamers with one example each,Fisher, sawhorse and Newmann proections with example
each)

Stereo isomers (enantiomers, diastereoisomers, definition with example)

Fisher Projection:

 A Fischer projection is a convention used to depict a three dimensional structure in two


dimension without destroying the stereochemical information, i.e., absolute
configuration, at chiral centers.
 In a Fischer projection, the longest chain is drawn vertically.
 The four bonds to a chiral carbon make a cross, with the carbon atom at the intersection
of the horizontal and vertical lines.
 The two horizontal bonds are pointing toward the viewer.
 The two vertical bonds are directed away from the viewer.

eg: (R)-Lactic acid

Sawhorse Projection:

 Sawhorse Projections are very similar to Newman Projections, but are used more
often because the carbon-carbon bond that is compressed in a Newman Projection is
fully drawn out in a Sawhorse Projection.
 When properly laid-out, Sawhorse Projections are useful for determining
enantiomeric or diasteromeric relationships between two molecules, because the
mirror image or superimposibility relationships are clearer.
 Sawhorse Projection is a view of a molecule down a particular carbon-carbon bond,
and groups connected to both the front and back carbons are drawn using sticks at
120 degree angles.
Conversion of Saw horse to Fisher projection

Conversion of Fisher to Newman to Sawhorse

How to determine R/S configuration video link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fod-YI4OzH0
α β

α β
DRUGS-Introduction
Introduction to pharmacology
• The study of drugs or chemicals and the effects they have on living animals is called
pharmacology.
• Pharmacology explains what drugs are, what they do to body functions and what
the body does to them.
• Pharmacology also explains why a person may experience side effects when they
take drugs and why there is such a wide spectrum of differences between drug
actions in different people.
What is a drug?
• A drug is a chemical that interacts with proteins in the body to affect a physiological
function. This is the general idea behind all medicine.
• Once these chemicals are absorbed into the systemic circulation they bind with
certain proteins and this changes the functioning of the cell slightly.
• For example, anticancer drugs bind to proteins on the surface of cancer cells this
stimulates the cells to die. In this case cell death is the physiological action of the
drug.
• No drugs are specific to interacting with just one type of cell or one type of protein
and this is what causes side effects. Again using an anticancer drug as an example,
the medication works by binding to very rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells,
however hair cells are also rapidly dividing and that is why one of the side effects of
anticancer drugs is hair loss.
What is in a drug?

• The chemical in the drug that affects physiological functioning is the active
ingredient of the drug.

• For most drugs, the amount of chemical needed to cause an effect is very small, often
as small as 5 micrograms; this is 0.005% of a gram! As you can imagine this is too
small to package and handle, these ingredients are very expensive and giving out
little amounts like that will cause most of the drug to be lost and wasted. Therefore
most of the drugs that we take are also comprised of inactive ingredients that work
to fill out the drug. Inactive ingredients are, as the name suggests, ingredients that
have no effect on the functioning of cells, namely lactose, dyes and gluten. If the drug
needs to be taken orally, the inactive ingredients also work to bind the drug together
and lubricate the drug so it is easy to swallow.

• So the inactive ingredients are the fillers, binders and lubricants of the drug whereas
the active ingredient is the very small amount of chemical that reacts with the body
to produce an effect.
How do drugs work?
• Our bodies are largely controlled by proteins. Proteins exist in many different forms in
the body and have many different functions. Each protein has a specific function and is
quite specific to the cell type that it acts on. For example, there are specific types of
proteins called receptors.

• Receptors are embedded on the cell surfaces, there are different receptors for
different types of cells. A liver cell will have different receptors than a cardiac cell. The
receptor binds to other proteins and chemicals on the outside of the cell and this in
turn creates a change in the functioning of the cell.

• Proteins also act as drug targets. In order for a drug to exert an effect it needs to be
bound to a protein. This can be thought of as a lock and key system; where the drugs
are the key and the protein is the lock. Once the drug is bound in this lock and key
mechanism it can have one of two main influences over the cell. It can produce a
change in response or it can stop a normal response of the cell.

• Drugs that produce a change in the cell functioning are called agonists. Drugs that stop
a normal function of the cell are called antagonists.
PARACETAMOL (Acetaminophen)-Synthesis

p-nitro phenol

Phenol o-nitro phenol

paracetamol
p-amino phenol
Aspirin

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