SHREE SWAMINARAYAN COLLEGE OF

TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT

Program Name: Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA)

Level: Undergraduate (Semester 2)
Course Name: Mathematics-2

Kavisha Oza (Msc Mathematics)

› Unit 1: Mathematical Logic (25%) - 11 Hours
• Statements and Notation
• Connectives (Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction)
• Truth Tables, Tautology, Contradiction
• Equivalence Formulas, Normal Forms
› Unit 2: Relation & Ordering (25%) - 11 Hours
• Binary Relations, Equivalence Relations
• Relation Matrix and Graph Representation
• Partial Ordering, Partially Ordered Sets
› Unit 4: Graph Theory (25%) - 12 Hours
• Graph Components: Nodes, Edges, and Paths
• Graph Types: Directed, Undirected, Weighted, etc.
• Cycles, Connectivity, Reachability
• Applications in network and route planning
Unit 1: Mathematical Logic
› Statements and Notation
› Connectives (Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction)
› Statement Formulas and Truth Table
› Conditional and Biconditional statement; Tautology and
contradiction
› Equivalence Formulas
› Duality
› Normal Forms
 Statements and Notation
› Statement (proposition) : A declarative sentence is said to be a statement.
› It is possible to say that it is true or false but not both.
› Truth Value: Truth value of a statement is denoted by 'T' if the statement is true.
› Truth value of a statement is denoted by 'F' if the statement is false.
› Usually, statements are denoted by letters like p, q, r, … or P1, P2, P3, …
Example: 1. "The sun is a star." > True > T
2. "2 + 2 = 5" > False > F
› Simple Statement: A statement involving only one statement is called a simple statement.
"The sky is blue."
› Composite Statement: A statement involving more than one statement is called a composite
or compound statement. "It is raining, and it is cold.“
› Component statements : The simple statements which form a compound statement are called
component or elemental statements. P="It is raining” Q="It is cold"
 Logical connectives
Two or more simple statements can be joined by any one of the five terms:

"and", "or", "not", "if then", "if and only if ”

Conjunction (and):
› The compound statement obtained by connecting two simple statements with the
connective "and" is called the conjunction of these simple statements.

› Conjunction of p & q is denoted by p ∧ q.

› The compound statement p ∧ q is true only when P & Q are both true
& for all other cases its false.
› TRUTH TABLE : p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction (or) :
› The compound statement obtained by connecting two simple statements with the
connective “or" is called the disjunction of these simple statements.

› Disjunction of p & q is denoted by p ∨ q.

› The compound statement p ∨ q is false only when P & Q are both

false & for all other cases its true.
› TRUTH TABLE : p q p∧q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Negation (not) :
› A statement whose truth value is opposite to that of a given statement & is also the opposite in its
contents is called its negation.
› Denoted by ~p and ¬p
› TRUTH TABLE :
p ~p
T F
F T

Logically equivalent statements: If two statements S1 (p, q, r, ...) & S2 (p, q, r, ...) have the
same truth value for all possible truth values of the component statements, then they are said to be
logically equivalent statements.
S1 (p, q, r, ...) = S2 (p, q, r, ...)
Tautology & Contradiction

Tautology ( t ) Contradiction ( c ) :
› A statement which is always true is › A statement which is always false is
called tautology. called contradiction.
› It is denoted by "t" › It is denoted by "c"
› Truth value for tautology = “ T ” › Truth value for contradiction =“ F ”
› Laws › Laws
1. p ∨ t = t 1. p∨c=p
2. p∧t=p 2. p ∧ c = c
3. p ∨ (~p) = t 3. p ∧ (~p) = c
Conditional Statement (if… then ) :
A conditional statement is represented in the form of “if… then”.
• Let P and Q are the two statements, then statements P and Q can be written as
P → Q (P implies Q).
• A conditional statement is also called implication.
• Converse : The converse of a conditional statement is formed by swapping the antecedent
and the consequent. The converse of p → q is q → p
• Inverse : The inverse of a conditional statement is formed by negating both the antecedent and
the consequent . The inverse of p → q is: ~ p→ ~ q
• Contrapositive : The contrapositive of a conditional statement is formed by swapping and
negating both the antecedent and the consequent.
• The contrapositive of p → q is : ~ q→ ~ p
• The statement p → q is false if p is true, and q is false. Otherwise, p → q is true.
• TRUTH TABLE : p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Biconditional Statement ( if and only if) :
› A biconditional statement is represented in the form of “if and only if”.
› A biconditional statement is also called biimplication
› Let p and q are the two statements, then statements p & q can be written as
p ⇔ q (equivalence).
› p ⇔ q = (p→ q) ∨ (q → p)
› The state p ⇔ q is true if both p & q is either true or false together.
Otherwise, false. p q p⇔q
T T T
› TRUTH TABLE :
T F F
F T F
F F T
Truth Table Summary:

1.Conjunction : AND (∧):

True only if both statements are true.
1.Disjunction : OR (∨):
True if at least one statement is true.
1.Conditional Statement : IF...THEN (→):
False only if the first statement is true and the second is
false.
1.Biconditional Statement : IF AND ONLY IF (↔):
True if both statements are either true or false.
Equivalence Formulas
1. Double Negation Law (involution law) :
~(~ � ) ⟺p
2. Commutative Laws:
� ∧ � ⟺� ∧ �
� ∨ � ⟺� ∨ �
3. Associative Laws:
(� ∧ � ) ∧ � ⟺� ∧ (� ∧ � )
(� ∨ � ) ∨ � ⟺� ∨ (� ∨ � )
4. Distributive Laws:
� ∧ (� ∨ � ) ⟺(� ∧ � ) ∨ ( � ∧ � )
p ∨ (q ∧ r)⟺(p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
Equivalence Formulas
5. De Morgan’s Laws:
~(� ∧ � ) ⟺~� ∨ ~�
~(� ∨ � ) ⟺~� ∧ ~�
6. Identity Laws:
� ∧ T ⟺�
� ∨ F ⟺�
7. Domination Laws:
� ∧ F ⟺F
� ∨ T ⟺T
8. Idempotent Laws:
� ∧ � ⟺� � ∨ � ⟺�
Equivalence Formulas
9. Absorption Laws:
� ∨ (� ∧ � ) ⟺�
� ∧ (� ∨ � ) ⟺�
10. Negation Laws:
� ∨ ~� ⟺T
� ∧ ~� ⟺F
11. Implication Law:
� →� ⟺ ~ � ∨ �
12. Biconditional Law:
� ↔ � ⟺(� ∧ � ) ∨ (~ � ∧ ~ � )
EXAMPLES :
1. p ∨ t = t
2. p ∧ c = c
3. p ∧ ~p = c
4. p → q ⟺~p ∨ q
5. p → (q → r) ⟺(p ∧ q) → r
6. (~ p ∧ (~ q ∧ r )) ∨ ( q ∧ r ) ∨ (p ∧ r ) ⟺r
7. ~ ( p ∨ (~p ∧ q ) ⟺~ p ∧ ~ q
8. Show that (p ∧ q ) → (p ∨ q ) is tautology.
9. Show that p → ( p ∧ (q → p)) is tautology.
10. ( p ∨ q ∨ r ) ⟺[ ((( p → q ) → q ) → r ) → r )
11.p → (q → r ) ⟺( p ∧ q ) → r
Duality :
› Two formulas, A and A*, are said to be duals of each other if either
one can be obtained from the other by replacing ∧ by ∨ and ∨
by ∧. The connectives ∧ and ∨ are also called duals of each
other. If the formula A contains the special variables T or F, then
A* , its dual, is obtained by replacing T by F and F by T in addition
to the above-mentioned interchanges. Examples of duality :
T→F
F→T
∧→∨
∨→∧
~→~
Write the dual of following expressions
›p ∨(q∧r)
› ~(� ∧ � ) ⟺~� ∨ ~�
› � ∨ (� ∧ � ) ⟺�
› � ∨ ~� ⟺T
› � ∨ F ⟺�
› � ∧ � ⟺�
› (� ∧ � ) ∧ � ⟺� ∧ (� ∧ � )
Normal Forms :
› Let A ( P1, P2, P3, …, Pn) be a statement formula
then the construction of the truth table may not be
practical as always
› So, we consider alternative procedure known as
reduction to normal forms
i. Disjunctive Normal Form
ii. Conjunctive Normal Form
Disjunctive Normal Form
› A statement form which consist of disjunction(∨)
between conjunction(∧) is called Disjunctive
Normal Form (DNF)

› Examples : 1. ( p ∧ q ) ∨ r
2. ( p ∧ ~ q ) ∨ (~ q ∧ r ) ∨ ( r ∧ ~
q)
Obtain the DNF of the form ( p → q ) ∧ (~p ∧ q )
Conjunctive Normal Form
› A statement form which consist of conjunction(∧)
between disjunction(∨) is called Conjunctive
Normal Form (CNF)

› Examples : 1. ( p ∧ q )
2. ( ~ p ∨ q ) ∧ (~ p ∨ r )
Obtain the CNF of the form ( p ∧ q ) ∨ (~p ∧ q ∧ r )
Obtain the DNF of the form p ∨ (~ p → (q ∨ (q →
~r )
•Sentence: If it rains, the ground will be wet.
Logic: p→q
(p: "It rains," q: "The ground will be wet.")

•Sentence: The sun is shining and it is not raining.

Logic: p∧¬q
(p: "The sun is shining," q: "It is raining.")

•Sentence: Either she studies or she fails.

Logic: p∨q
(p: "She studies," q: "She fails.")
•Sentence: You can pass the exam only if you study.
Logic: p→q
(p: "You study," q: "You pass the exam.")
•Sentence: If today is Sunday, then tomorrow is Monday.
Logic: p→q
(p: "Today is Sunday," q: "Tomorrow is Monday.")
•Sentence: If the train is late, then I will miss the meeting.
Logic: p→q
(p: "The train is late," q: "I miss the meeting.")
•Sentence: Either the dog barks or the cat meows.
Logic: p∨q
(p: "The dog barks," q: "The cat meows.")
•Sentence: If you do not submit the assignment, you will not get marks.
Logic: ¬p→¬q
(p: "You submit the assignment," q: "You get marks.")
•Sentence: The lamp is on if and only if the switch is pressed.
Logic: p ⟺q
(p: "The lamp is on," q: "The switch is pressed.")
•Sentence: The cake will bake if the oven is hot and the timer is set.
Logic: p∧q→r
(p: "The oven is hot," q: "The timer is set," r: "The cake will bake.")