SECTION C (COMPULSORY QUESTION) 15 MARK

1.Discuss the use of the GROUP BY clause with aggregate functions, providing examples to
illustrate your points.

The GROUP BY clause in SQL is used to arrange identical data into groups. This is particularly
useful when combined with aggregate functions to perform calculations on each group of data.
Here’s a detailed discussion with examples:

Aggregate Functions

Common aggregate functions used with GROUP BY include:

 COUNT(): Counts the number of rows.

Basic Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ..., aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column1, column2, ...;

Examples

Example 1: COUNT() with GROUP BY

Suppose we have a table named Employees with the following data:

EmployeeID Name Department Salary

1 John Doe HR 50000

2 Jane Smith IT 60000

3 Sam Brown IT 55000

4 Lisa White HR 52000

5 Tom Black IT 58000

To count the number of employees in each department:

SELECT Department, COUNT(EmployeeID) AS EmployeeCount

Result

Department EmployeeCount

HR 2

IT 3

Example 2: SUM() with GROUP BY

To calculate the total salary for each department:

SELECT Department, SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary

Result

Department TotalSalary

HR 102000
 Department TotalSalary

IT 173000

Example 3: AVG() with GROUP BY

To find the average salary for each department:

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) AS AverageSalary

Result

Department AverageSalary

HR 51000

IT 57666.67

Example 4: MIN() and MAX() with GROUP BY

To find the minimum and maximum salary in each department:

SELECT Department, MIN(Salary) AS MinSalary, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary

Result

Department MinSalary MaxSalary

HR 50000 52000

IT 55000 60000

Advanced Usage
 You can also use the HAVING clause to filter groups based on aggregate functions. For example,
to find departments with more than one employee:

SELECT Department, COUNT(EmployeeID) AS EmployeeCount

2.Explain different types of data models in DBMS.

Certainly! Let’s dive into the fascinating world of data models in Database Management
Systems (DBMS). These models help us organize and represent data in a structured way. Here
are some key types of data models:

1. Relational Model:
o Description: The relational model is the most widely used data model. It
represents data as a collection of tables (relations), where each table consists of
rows (tuples) and columns (attributes).
o Example: Imagine a retail store database. We’d have tables like “Customers,”
“Products,” “Orders,” and “Order_Items.” Each table corresponds to a specific
entity (e.g., customers, products), and relationships between tables are established
using keys (like customer IDs and product IDs).
o Advantages: Simplicity, consistency, and support for complex queries.
o Citation: 12
2. Flat Data Model:
o Description: In a flat data model, data is stored in a single, large table with no
explicit relationships. It’s like a spreadsheet.
o Example: A simple list of employee records with all their details in one table.
o Advantages: Simplicity but lacks structure for complex data.
o Citation: 1
3. Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model):
o Description: ER models use entities, attributes, and relationships to represent
data. Entities are real-world objects (e.g., employees, products), and relationships
define how they’re connected.
o Example: An ER diagram showing customers, orders, and products linked by
relationships.
o Advantages: Clear visualization of data relationships.
o Citation: 13
4. Network Model:
o Description: The network model organizes data as a graph, with records
connected by pointers.
o Example: Used in legacy systems; not as common today.
o Advantages: Supports complex relationships.
 oCitation: 1
5. Hierarchical Model:
o Description: Hierarchical models organize data in a tree-like structure with
parent-child relationships.
o Example: Early databases like IMS (Information Management System).
o Advantages: Efficient for certain use cases.
o Citation: 13
6. Object-Oriented Data Model:
o Description: This model extends the relational model to handle complex data
types (objects).
o Example: Used in object-oriented databases.
o Advantages: Suitable for object-oriented programming.
o Citation: 1
7. Object-Relational Model:
o Description: Combines features of both relational and object-oriented models.
o Example: Storing objects (e.g., images, documents) alongside traditional data.
o Advantages: Flexibility.
o Citation: 1

Remember, each model has its own strengths and weaknesses. Choosing the right one depends
on your specific requirements and the problem you’re solving. Feel free to explore further or ask
if you’d like more examples or details! 😊123

By the way, which of these models intrigues you the most? 🤔