ASM Handbook, Volume 21: Composites Copyright © 2001 ASM International®

D.B. Miracle and S.L. Donaldson, editors, p59-68 All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0003360 www.asminternational.org

Fabrics and Preforms

WOVEN MATERIALS, in laminate form, are weave, which is the most highly interlaced, is Unidirectional material has the most “unbal-
currently displacing more traditional structural therefore the tightest of the basic fabric designs anced” weave and is usually reserved for special
forms primarily because of the availability of fi- and most resistant to in-plane shear movement. applications involving hardware with axial sym-
bers (such as carbon and aramid) whose en- Basket weave, a variation of plain weave, has metry (such as a carbon-fiber-reinforced shuttle
hanced mechanical properties in composite form warp and fill yarns that are paired: two up and motor case) fabricated using a tape-wrapping
surpass the property values of corresponding two down. The satin weaves represent a family operation.
hardware in aluminum or steel on a strength-to- of constructions with a minimum of interlacing. A weave construction known as locking leno
weight basis. In these, the weft yarns periodically skip, or (Fig. 4), which is used only in special areas of
Woven broad goods, considered to be inter- float, over several warp yarns, as shown in Fig. the fabric, such as the selvage, is woven on a
mediate forms, present these fibers in a more 2. The satin weave repeat is x yarns long and the shuttleless loom. The gripping action of the in-
convenient format for the design engineer, resin float length is x – 1 yarns; that is, there is only tertwining leno yarns anchors or locks the open
coater, and hardware fabricator. The many vari- one interlacing point per pattern repeat per yarn. selvage edges produced on rapier looms. The
ations of properties made possible by combining The floating yarns that are not being woven into leno weave helps prevent selvage unraveling
different yarns and weaves allow the structural the fabric create considerable looseness or sup- during subsequent handling operations, but is
engineer a wide range of laminate properties. pleness. The satin weave produces a construction unsatisfactory for obtaining good laminate
The designer should understand the operation of with low resistance to shear distortion and is thus physical properties. However, it has found ap-
weaving hardware and textile design details in easily molded (draped) over compound curves, plications where a very open (but stable) weave
order to select the best fabric style. such as an aircraft wingroot area. This is one is desired.
This article describes the types of fabrics and reason that satin weaves are preferred for many The textile designer is concerned with only a
preforms that are used in the manufacture of ad- aerospace applications. Satin weaves can be pro- few fabric parameters: type of fiber, type of yarn,
vanced composites and related selection, design, duced as standard four-, five-, or eight-harness weave style, yarn count, and areal weight. Stan-
manufacturing, and performance considerations. forms. As the number of harnesses increases, so dard methods for measuring such parameters are
do the float lengths and the degree of looseness well documented in Ref 1.
and sleaziness, making the fabric more difficult The verification of quality is an important as-
Unidirectional and to control during handling operations. Textile pect of the aerospace materials business. Quality
Two-Directional Fabrics fabrics generally exhibit greater tensile strength is usually governed by military specification as
in plain weaves. This distinction fades in the part of the purchasing requirements. Typical
The fabric pattern, often called the construc- composites field. quality defects, such as missing or broken warp
tion, is an x, y coordinate system. The y-axis rep- The ultimate laminate mechanical properties or fill yarns, fabric misorientation (pucker), and
resents warp yarns and is the long axis of the are obtained from unidirectional-style fabric misweaves in the pattern due to equipment fail-
fabric roll (typically 30 to 150 m, or 100 to 500 (Fig. 3), where the carrier properties essentially ure or foreign material on the fabric, are docu-
ft). The x-axis is the fill direction, that is, the roll vanish in the laminate form. The higher the yarn mented in Ref 1 and 2.
width (typically 910 to 3050 mm, or 36 to 120 interlacing (for a given-size yarns), the fewer the Weave construction is the realm of the textile
in.). Basic fabric weaves are few in number, but number of yarns that can be woven per unit engineer, but fabric mechanical properties and
combinations of different types and sizes of length. The necessary separation between yarns how they translate into the laminate are concerns
yarns with different warp/fill counts allow for reduces the number that can be packed together. of the composite design engineer. Maximum di-
hundreds of variations. This is the reason for the higher yarn count rectional properties for the minimum material
The most common weave construction used (yarns/in.) that is possible in unidirectional ma- (thickness) are attained with unidirectional-style
for everything from cotton shirts to fiberglass terial and its better physical properties. material. The more usual goal of balanced prop-
stadium canopies is the plain weave, shown in erties requires two-directional styles. The fiber
Fig. 1. The essential construction requires only obviously dominates those properties carried by
four weaving yarns: two warp and two fill. This the fabric into a structural composite.
basic unit is called the pattern repeat. Plain

Fig. 1 Plain weave, yarn interlacing Fig. 2 Five-harness satin weave, interlacing Fig. 3 Unidirectional weave
60 / Constituent Materials

the same matrix and can be fabricated by the co-

curing process.

Multidirectionally
Reinforced Fabrics

With the emergence of carbon-carbon com-

posites and the resultant increased use of com-
posite materials for high-temperature aerospace
applications, the anisotropic nature of two-direc-
tionally oriented fabric presented a design prob-
lem: Although mechanical properties were sat-
isfactory in the two directions containing
reinforcement fabric, the mechanical properties
in the third direction were matrix dominated and
typically more than an order of magnitude less
than in the reinforced direction. This problem
was especially critical in applications involving
high thermal stresses, such as carbon-carbon
composite ballistic reentry nose tips and solid
rocket throats. The obvious solution was to add
fiber reinforcement in the third direction, and ad-
Fig. 4 Full-width plain weave with leno selvage ditional directions when necessary, to provide
composite materials with isotropism approach-
ing that of metals.
The fiberglass industry has these well-estab- graphite composite or structure in order to take Early work in multidirectional reinforcement,
lished fabric styles and categories: advantage of the benefits of graphite, and (3) preformed in the late 1960s, emphasized the de-
producing a lower-cost structure. Normally, the velopment of geometric principles for a variety
Fabric weight Areal wt, kg/m2 (oz/yd2) Thickness, lm (mil) impact resistance of graphite fiber composites of fiber orientations, ranging from orthogonal,
Light 0.10–0.35 (3–10) 25–125 (1–5) can be improved by adding high-strength fibers three-directional to eleven-directional reinforce-
Intermediate 0.35–0.70 (10–20) 125–250 (5–10) with a greater strain-to-failure ratio than graph- ment.
Heavy 0.50–1.0 (15–30) 250–500 (10–20) ite. Several energy-absorbing mechanisms that By the mid 1970s, it became apparent that the
have been proposed include interlacing resin lay- high cost of hand-assembled preforms (a pre-
ers to absorb energy and using fillers to stop shaped fibrous reinforcement) would severely
The newer carbon and aramid fiber industries cracks. Table 3 shows typical hybrid graphite/ limit the application of multidirectionally rein-
are somewhat oriented to custom design, but as aramid and graphite/glass impact properties. forced composites to a very few aerospace ap-
the aerospace market matures, a few fabric con- Graphite hybrid composites can be fabricated plications. As a result, development activities
structions may become standards. Table 1 pro- using conventional techniques and can be com- began to de-emphasize the more complicated re-
vides a sampling of styles that have found uses, bined with boron, glass, aramid fibers, or metals inforcement geometries and concentrate on
along with corresponding order-of-magnitude in a laminated structure. Hybrids usually have three-directional reinforcements, seeking to nar-
epoxy resin composite properties.
The following data illustrate the relative mar-
ket importance of various aerospace textile in-
Table 1 Typical fabric styles and composite properties
termediate forms:
Thickness at 25 kPa
Weight (3.4 psi)
Woven 90%
Weave Yarns/in., warp fill kg/m2 oz/yd2 mm in.
Filament winding 5%
Braided 1% Typical fabric weaves
Knit 1% Eight-harness satin 24  23 0.370 10.9 0.46 0.018
Prepregs (a) Eight-harness satin 24  23 0.370 10.9 0.48 0.019
Plain 121⁄2  121⁄2 0.190 5.6 0.30 0.012
(a) Depends on prepreg manufacture and its market segment/product line
Five-harness satin 24  24 0.125 3.7 0.20 0.008
CFS 24  12 0.20 6.0 0.23 0.009
Plain 111⁄2  111⁄2 0.19 5.7 0.25 0.010
Five-harness satin 11  11 0.370 10.9 0.50 0.020
Hybrid Fabrics Plain 88 0.525 15.5 0.81 0.032
Eight-harness satin 101⁄2  101⁄2 0.755 22.2 1.0 0.040
Plain 10  10 0.345 10.2 0.48 0.019
Hybrid fabrics are those woven from several 8HS 21  21 0.393 11.6 0.38 0.015
different types of fibers, in contrast to fabrics
woven from a single type of fiber. Table 2 shows Property Value

typical properties of one hybrid graphite/aramid Typical composite properties (balanced weave)
fabric. Combining fiber reinforcements allows Tensile strength, MPa (ksi) 620–690 (90–100)
Tensile modulus, GPa (106 psi) 69–76 (10–11)
the designer considerable flexibility. Among the Flexural strength, MPa (ksi) 690–900 (100–130)
reasons for the hybridization of graphite com- Flexural modulus, GPa (106 psi) 62–69 (9–10)
posites are (1) adding another fiber to a pre- Compressive strength, MPa (ksi) 620–690 (90–100)
dominantly graphite composite in order to over- Compressive modulus, GPa (106 psi) 62–69 (9–10)
Short beam shear strength, kPa (psi) 55–69 (8–10)
come the inherent disadvantages of graphite, (2) Specific gravity 1.6
adding graphite fibers to a predominantly non-
 Fabrics and Preforms / 61

Table 2 Properties of graphite, aramid, and hybrid fabric composites compared to 0
/90
laminates made from unidirectional layers
(data normalized to 65 vol% fiber)
Tensile modulus, Tensile modulus, Tensile strength, Tensile Compressive Compressive
Ratio of aramid 0
/90
fabric Fabric 0
/90
strength, fabric Fabric strength, 0
/90
strength, fabric Fabric
6 6
to graphite fiber GPa 10 psi GPa 10 psi efficiency, % MPa ksi MPa ksi efficiency, % MPa ksi MPa ksi efficiency, %
100/0 36.5 5.29 35.8 5.19 98 579 84.0 544 78.9 94 165 23.9 152 22.0 92
50/50 55.1 7.99 48.2 6.99 87 572 83.0 400 58.0 70 407 59.0 227 32.9 56
25/75 69.6 10.1 57.2 8.30 82 661 95.9 434 62.9 66 641 93.0 317 45.0 49
0/100 72.3 10.5 59.9 8.69 83 730 105 434 62.9 59 965 140 558 80.9 58
Source: Ref 3

row the program scope and to optimize the three- larly true of carbon and graphite fibers, which revolution shapes, including cylinders, cylin-
directional configuration for specific applica- account for about 90% of all three-directional ders/cones, and convergent/divergent sections.
tions, such as reentry nose tips and solid rocket woven preforms. High-modulus graphite fiber is When nonaxisymmetric shapes are needed, such
motor throats. This optimization included fiber particularly prone to fracture during preform as leading edges or conic/rectangular transitions,
selection, heat treatment variations, and wave construction. a two-step process is used. First, preform of ap-
balance. propriate geometry is woven. Next, the preform
With the scope of multidirectional reinforce- Weave Geometry is placed in a metal die, deformed into the re-
ment development this reduced, it became pos- quired shape, and impregnated with a suitable
sible to design and fabricate semiautomated There are more than 20 varieties of multidi- resinous material to ensure geometric stability
equipment to reduce preform costs while in- rectionally reinforced preforms. Only the three during the remainder of the densification pro-
creasing quality by eliminating the human error variations of three-directional preforms that are cess, as shown in Fig. 7. It may or may not be
potential associated with hand assembly. As a most widely used and best characterized are de- necessary to slit the preform before deformation;
result of these activities, semiautomated weavers scribed here, however. although the leading-edge example in Fig. 7 re-
were developed by the late 1970s and used to Polar weave three-directional preforms have quired slitting, a simpler deformation from conic
produce propulsion hardware for strategic reinforcement yarns in the circumferential, ra- to conic/rectangular would not.
weapon systems. At the present time, fully au- dial, and axial (longitudinal) directions, as Present size limitations for three-directional
tomated computer-controlled three-directional shown in Fig. 6. Preforms of this geometry nor- polar weave cylindrical preforms are an approx-
weavers are operational. mally contain 50 vol% fibers that can be intro- imate maximum of 210 cm (84 in.) in diameter
duced equally in the three directions. Some vari- and 130 cm (50 in.) in length. Wall thicknesses
Reinforcement Materials ation in relative yarn distribution can be vary from 6.4 to 200 mm (0.25 to 8 in.). Inside
accomplished when a specific application re- diameters are limited to 75 mm (3 in.) because
There are few limits on the composition of quires unbalanced properties. For example, if of space requirements for the weaving mecha-
reinforcement fibers that can be woven into high-hoop tensile strength is required, additional nism.
three-dimensional preforms; if a material can be fibers can be added in the circumferential direc- Although yarn spacing is not discussed in spe-
made into a fiber, it can probably be woven into tion, at some sacrifice of radial and longitudinal cific quantitative terms because of the large num-
some type of three-directional preform. Fibers properties. ber of variables, some general observations are
that have been woven into three-directional pre- Although originally developed as 305 to 510 appropriate. In a polar weave three-directional
forms include carbon-graphite, glass, silica, alu- mm diam (12 to 20 in. diam) thick-walled cyl- preform, the angular spacing of the radial fibers
mina, aluminosilicates, silicon carbide, cotton, inders, polar weave three-directional preforms
and aramid. When design requirements necessi- are presently fabricated in a number of body-of-
tate, it is possible to weave a three-directional
preform with a combination of fibers, as illus-
trated by the silica/carbon cylinder in Fig. 5.
Generally, the only limitation to fiber selection
is the combination of brittle fibers and small yarn
bend radii, the latter being caused by either
weave geometry or the yarn delivery system of
the automated weaving machine. This is particu-

Table 3 Impact resistance of hybrid Fig. 6 Geometry of 3-D polar weave preform
composites
Izod impact strength,
unnotched
Hybrid composite(a), wt% J/m ft • lbf/in.
Graphite, 100% 1495 28
Graphite, 75%; aramid, 25% 1815 34
Graphite, 50%; aramid, 50% 2349 44
Aramid, 100% 2562 48
Graphite, 100% 1495 28
Graphite, 75%; glass, 25% 2349 44
Graphite, 50%; glass, 50% 2989 56
Glass, 100% 3843 72
(a) With epoxy matrix. Source: Ref 4 Fig. 5 Cylinder showing the combined use of silica and Fig. 7 Deformation of three-dimensional cylindrical
carbon fibers preform to form a leading edge
62 / Constituent Materials

is a critical factor. The number and diameter of Prepreg has become an article of commerce be- Epoxy Resins. A resin chemistry that satisfies
the radial yarn bundles remain constant as they cause it frees the end user from having to de- both manufacturing and composite property re-
move from the inside diameter to the outside di- velop resin formulations and impregnate fiber. quirements is based on epoxy resins with a latent
ameter of the part, forming a pie-shaped “corri- The composite material can be bought with resin curative system. The cure system will be slow,
dor” of increasing width. The volume percentage content, resin type, and fiber type already made at room temperature, to prevent reactions that
of radial fibers is therefore lower at the outside to order. Handling characteristics such as curing reduce tack, drape, and out time, but sufficiently
diameter than at the inside diameter. To account time and temperature can be controlled to precise rapid at elevated temperatures to permit reason-
for this and to maintain a uniform fiber volume levels to meet user requirements. Prepregs can ably short curing times. Even the most latent
throughout the preform, the fiber bundle size of be divided into at least two classes: those suit- systems in use do not completely eliminate
both the circumferential and longitudinal yarns able for high-preformance applications (includ- room-temperature reaction. After the fiber is im-
is increased. ing aerospace applications) and those to be used pregnated with resin, it is stored and shipped at
Orthogonal weave three-directional pre- in lower-performance molding compounds. low temperatures. The material is allowed to
forms have reinforcement yarns arranged in an Aerospace applications demand high-perfor- warm to room temperatures for lay-up. Typi-
orthogonal (Cartesian) geometry, with all yarns mance, high-quality composites and moldings. cally, a one-year storage life at –20
C (0
F) is
intersecting at 90
angles, as shown in Fig. 8. The lower-performance applications use sheet provided.
Typical yarn content varies from 45 to 55%, molding prepregs for automotive components The epoxide group is well known and is a ma-
similar to that of a polar weave preform. These and appliance housings. The two general classes ture technology (Ref 5–7). A wide range of ep-
fibers can be introduced uniformly in each of the differ widely in composition, handling, part oxy-containing ingredients are available, as well
three directions to provide isotropic properties or manufacture, and use. as a wide range of curing agents and catalysts.
in unbalanced amounts when design considera- Resins with different viscosities, amounts of re-
tions require anisotropic properties. Unlike polar Prepreg Resins for active groups, and structures are available. Ad-
weave preforms, they are rarely woven to near- ditives that change the uncured resin viscosity,
net configuration. Instead, they are woven as
High-Performance Applications reduce brittleness, or impart some other property
blocks, and parts are machined to the requisite The reinforcement in prepregs supplied for are available. Aromatic backbones and high
size and shape. aerospace application is typically carbon fiber. functionality give a strong high-temperature,
In regard to yarn spacing, it is worth noting The high strength and stiffness of carbon, cou- highly cross-linked matrix that is usually brittle.
that orthogonally woven three-directional pre- pled with its low density, result in composites Aliphatic epoxies and low functionality usually
forms generally have a much finer unit cell size with higher performance/weight ratio than is result in matrices with higher elongation, lower
than their polar weave counterparts, resulting in possible in either metals or composites using temperature capability, and higher toughness.
superior mechanical properties and erosion re- glass fiber. The prepreg consists of resin-impreg- The primary resin for aerospace application is
sistance after densification into a composite. nated fiber in either uniaxial or woven form. N,N,N,N-tetraglycidyl-4,4-methylenebisben-
Angle interlock, also known as warp inter- The part fabricator requires a prepreg with zenamine. When reacted with the appropriate cu-
lock is a multilayered fabric in which the warp tack, drape, and a certain tack life and out time. rative, it yields a hard resin with temperature ca-
yarns travel from one surface of the fabric to the Tack is the tendency of two plies or layers to pabilities of about 190 to 205
C (375 to 400
F).
other, holding together up to eight layers of fab- adhere sufficiently to allow laying-up of com- Curatives. The epoxide group can react
ric, thus creating a thick, two-directional fabric, plex parts yet allow a clean strip-back if layers chemically with other molecules to form a three-
as shown in Fig. 9(a). When higher in-plane are applied incorrectly. Too low an adhesion dimensional network. This chemical reaction
strength is needed, additional stuffer yarns can level will allow layers to slip, while too aggres- changes the liquid resin into a load-bearing solid.
be added to create a quasi three-directional fab- sive a level will not allow repositioning. Drape Curing agent scan include amines, anhydrides,
ric, as shown in Fig. 9(b). is the ability of the prepreg to bend and conform acids, and many others. Two commonly used
Although angle interlock fabric is economical to mold curvature. Tack life refers to the amount
to produce on commercially available weaving of time that the prepreg can be at room tempera-
equipment, its use has been limited. Because it ture and still retain enough tack for lay-up. Out
is unavailable in closed shapes, its use when time is the total amount of time that the prepreg
closed cones/cylinders are required necessitates can be left at room temperature before curing and
the use of joints and their attendant plane of still make a good part. Fabricators must consider
weakness. all of these handling characteristics, in addition
Stitched fabric and needled felt can be mar- to the cured properties generated by certain resin
ginally included in a summary of three-direc- and fiber combinations.
tional preforms and fabrics. Although both ma-
terials have reinforcement fibers in all three
directions, the amount of fiber in the cross-ply
direction is frequently such a small fraction of
the total fiber volume that the cross-ply mechan-
ical properties are only slightly better than the
matrix dominated properties of two-directional
materials.

Prepreg Resins
Fibers that are preimpregnated with matrix
resin in the uncured state are known as prepregs.
Either continuous- or chopped-fiber prepregs are
supplied to a part fabricator to the laminated or
molded. The laid-up part is then subjected to heat Fig. 8 Geometry of three-dimensional orthogonal Fig. 9 Geometry of angle-interlock fabric (a) with and
and pressure to cure (chemically react) the resin. weave preform (b) without added stuffer yarns
 Fabrics and Preforms / 63

amine curatives for prepreg resins are 4,4-dia- recommended by the prepreg supplier are de- Prepreg Resins for
minodiphenylsulfone and dicyandiamide. Other signed for specific composite thicknesses and Lower-Performance Applications
curatives are too reactive with the epoxies at low resin formulations. Significant departures from
and room temperatures, resulting in an unac- customary lay-ups and cure schedules should be Sheet molding compounds (SMCs), used in
ceptable reduction of storage and use life. Di- reviewed for safety as well as for achievement applications where the high performance and
cyandiamide appears to decompose at elevated of ultimate properties. high cost of carbon prepregs are not justified,
temperatures of 145 to 154
C (290 to 310
F) Another epoxy application for prepregs is in consist of continuous or chopped fibers and a
to yield other nitrogen-containing species, which circuit boards. Glass is used for this application polyester or vinyl ester resin. The formulation
cause the curing reaction to occur. The curative because carbon fiber is electrically conductive. includes inorganic filler, thixotrope, catalyst, re-
4,4-diaminodiphenylsulfone may or may not The combination of glass and epoxy resin yields lease gent, and pigments. Processing conditions
completely dissolve in the epoxy resins. Insolu- good electrical properties, in addition to good usually are 1 to 3 min in a press at 90 to 150
C
bility contributes to its latent curing behavior. temperature capabilities and ease of epoxy (200 to 300
F).
Curatives are usually mixed with epoxy content chemistry processing. Sheet molding compound is manufactured by
on a 1-to-1 chemical basis. In the calculation of High-temperature epoxy resins have maxi- calendaring a strip that contains the fiber and
amounts, each hydrogen of the amine group is mum continuous-use temperature of 205 to 230 resin. Because of the latent nature of the catalyst,
considered to react with one epoxy group. The
C (400 to 450
F). Temperature spikes up to 290 molding compounds can be stored and shipped
actual mix ratio may be varied to optimize de-
C (550
F) can be tolerated by some formula- at ambient temperature.
sired properties. tions based on epoxy novolacs. The amine-cured The two types of resin families that are used—
Catalysts are used to accelerate the latent cu- epoxy resins are also affected by water. Because polyester and vinyl ester—are similar in chem-
ratives in order to achieve a complete cure in a of the hydroxyl groups generated during cure, istry. A typical polyester resin is formed by the
shorter time. Boron trifluoride (BF3) can be ren- water is absorbed readily and acts like a plasti- reaction of glycols and dibasic acids and anhy-
dered latent by complexing with nitrogen-con- cizer. Water exposure can reduce the operating drides. Other unsaturated compounds, such as
taining compounds, such as monoethylamine. temperature by 56
C (100
F). Although much styrene, are added to cross-link and act as a dil-
Other amines can be used to adjust latency. effort has been spent to synthesize polymers that uent. Curing is accomplished by peroxide-initi-
The types of amines and epoxies used for pre- possess adequate thermal and water resistance, ated free-radial polymerization.
pregs react slowly at room temperature, and el- very few have proved to be economically feasi- Vinyl ester resins are manufactured by react-
evated temperatures are needed for complete ble. However, two chemical approaches appear ing unsaturated carboxylic acids and epoxies.
cure and attainment of ultimate properties. How- able to solve the problem: addition polyimides As in the case of polyesters, styrene or vinyl
ever, as a general rule, the temperature-use ca- and condensation polyimides (Ref 8). toluene is used as a diluent for processing and
pability of the cured resin is slightly above the Addition polyimides are based on the reaction chemical reactions. Vinyl esters are tougher,
actual curing temperature. Therefore, a room- of bismaleimide molecules with aromatic amines shrink less, and are more resistant to chemical
temperature system will operate at room tem- or dienes. These systems possess temperature ca- attack than polyesters.
perature within a range; a formulation cured at pabilities in excess of 260
C (500
F). Addition For both families, the composition of the resin
175
C (350
F) will perform at or somewhat polyimides are similar to epoxies in that no vol- affects the physical properties of a final part. The
above that temperature. atiles are released by the polymerization reac- type of chemical backbone and diluent will allow
The actual mixture of epoxy resin or resins, tion. In order to achieve the high-temperature weather resistance, chemical resistance, impact
curative, and catalyst that is formulated and properties, autoclave cures at 175
C (350
F) are properties, and flow during processing to be tai-
blended is designed to meet end-use, prepreg- followed by postcures at 315 to 340
C (600 to lored to fit the application. The curing time and
ging, handling, and storage requirements. Low- 650
F) in a free-standing oven. The primary storage life is altered by the amount and type of
viscosity resin components are used to reduce drawback to addition polyimides is their extreme catalyst, accelerator, and inhibitors
overall viscosity and aid in prepreg manufacture brittleness, which can be compensated for, some- Additional information about SMCs in pro-
and flow during curing. Aromatic epoxies that what, but usually at the loss of temperature ca- vided in the article “Molding Compounds” in
differ in epoxy functionality are used to vary the pability or water resistance. this Volume.
cross-link density. Highly cross-linked aromatic Condensation polyimides have temperature
resins used in aerospace prepregs make a very capabilities exceeding 315
C (600
F) and are
strong composite that is nonetheless brittle; flex- not as brittle as the addition polyimides. A pol-
ibilizers or tougheners may be added to decrease yimide solution of in situ polymerization of Woven Fabric Prepregs
brittleness. The amount of type of epoxy resins monomer reactants consists of a mixture of
is varied to maximize desired composite prop- monomers dissolved in solvent. The monomers Woven fabric prepregs are one of the most
erties as well as improve processing and han- are latent, as in the case of prepreg epoxy resins, widely used fiber-reinforced resin forms. Fabrics
dling characteristics. but react at high temperatures. The presence of typically offer flexibility in fabrication tech-
Cure cycles for resin formulations are deter- solvent, as well as the liberation of volatiles dur- nique, but a higher cost than other prepreg forms.
mined empirically. A given cure cycle may have ing polymerization, can create voids in the cured The designer must consider these and other fac-
several hold steps on the temperature rise to the parts. The cure cycle and devolatilization are tors before selecting a prepreg form for structural
maximum cure temperature. Hold steps at a critical for producing high-quality parts. application. Information about fabric types and
given temperature allow resin flow to ensure a Glass-phenolic and carbon-phenolic prepregs weave patterns is provided in the section “Uni-
void-free part. They also prevent runaway tem- are used in specialty flame-resistant and ablative directional and Two-Directional Fabrics” in this
perature increases caused by rapid rates of re- applications (Ref 9, 10), including aircraft inte- article.
action and cross-linking. The programmed heat- rior panels and exit cones for rocket motors. Phe- Fabrics can be prepregged using either a hot-
up cycle allows reactive groups to be consumed nolic resins have excellent heat resistance, but melt or a solvent-coating process. The hot-melt
at a rate that permits removal of the heat of re- their drawbacks include brittleness and the need process uses a machine similar to that used for
action. Subsequent heating to a higher tempera- for press curing at high pressures to suppress fabricating unidirectional tape. Resin can be ap-
ture (and higher polymerization rate) is safe, be- volatiles generated during the cross-linking re- plied to the fabric either by using prefilmed sub-
cause the amount of reactive material has been action. strate paper, a “knife over roll,” or a similar coat-
reduced. Conversely, hold steps can build vis- More detailed information is provided in the ing mechanism. Solvent coating is typically
cosity through a reaction that reduces resin flow articles “Epoxy Resins,” “Bismaleimide Res- accomplished by immersing the fabric into a
when the temperature is increased. Cure cycles ins,” and “Phenolic Resins”in this Volume. bath containing 20 to 50% of a solvent and resin
64 / Constituent Materials

Table 4 Fiber bundle dimensions Tape Manufacture and Product Forms

Yield/tow Filament size
Material m/kg yd/lb lm lin.
The fiber is typically converted into a prepreg
by bringing a number of spooled tows into a col-
Graphite (1000 to 12,000 filaments per tow) 300–1200 150–600 5–10 200–390
Fiberglass (2450–12,240 filaments per tow) 490–2400 245–1200 4–13 160–510 limated form, as shown in Fig. 10. The prepreg-
Aramid (800–3200 filaments per tow) 2000–7850 980–3900 12 470 ging operation consists of heating a matrix resin
to obtain low viscosity and creating a well-dis-
persed fiber-resin mass. The amount of fiber is
controlled by the number of tows brought into
mixture and then drying the fabric in a one-pass plies to be oriented in predetermined directions. the prepreg line, and the resin can be cast onto
or multipass former coater. The two techniques Whether the lay-up is produced manually or is the substrate paper either on the prepreg line or
generate different characteristics in the prepreg: automated, the principles behind the lay-up tech- in a separate filming operation to obtain the de-
Hot melt niques are similar. When the structural shapes sired fiber-resin ratio. The prepreg is calendered
permit, the most reproducible properties are de- to obtain a uniform thickeness and to close fiber
● Less drape and lower tack, due to higher resin
veloped by laying up plies that are cut to size gaps before being wound on a core. Substrate
viscosity, which in turn is due to lack of re-
and then applied to transfer films. These transfer paper is ordinarily left between layers of tape.
sidual solvent in the prepreg
films, or polyester film templates, are indexed to The paper can be any releasing film, but is typ-
● Better hot/wet mechanical properties, less
specified ply locations and orientations with re- ically a calendered paper coated with a nontrans-
flow, and longer gel time, due to the absence
spect to the mold. Plies that are laid up on tem- ferable, cured silicone coating. Figure 11 shows
of volatiles
plates are transferred to molds without additional a typical spool of graphite-epoxy prepreg tape,
● Higher cost, due to slower process speed and
distortion; after the plies are laid up and trans- which is available in a wide variety of widths,
higher resin scrappage
ferred, the templates are removed. thicknesses, and package sizes.
Solvent coating Anisotropies of a fabric-reinforced prepreg in Using narrow (75 mm, or 3 in.) prepreg tape
one ply are corrected with equal but opposite usually results in a minimal material loss of 7 to
● Better drape, due to lower resin viscosity and,
anisotropy in adjacent plies. The symmetry 10%. Narrow tape is ideally suited for a very
usually, higher tack
achieved by making these corrections is impor- expensive material, such as boron-epoxy. How-
● Residual solvent of 1 to 2%, which incurs
tant to avoid distortions in the cured laminates ever, using narrow tape increases labor costs,
longer gel time, higher flow, and lower hot/
Other corrections are sometimes made by cross- which must be balanced against material costs.
wet mechanical properties
plying compensating misalignments to attain or-
● Lower cost, due to increased process speed
thotropy (Ref 11). Tape Properties
and reduced resin waste.
Fabrication Techniques. Woven fabric pre- Reinforcement fibers by their nature are an-
pregs can be darted to conform to convoluted Unidirectional Tape Prepregs isotropic (reinforcing primarily in one direction).
shapes of low-stressed items. Darting is the prac- Consequently, unidirectional tapes reinforce pri-
tice of slitting the prepregs at locations where Prepreg tapes of continuous-fiber reinforce- marily in the 0
direction of the reinforcing fi-
folds would normally occur in a lay-up; the ex- ment in uncured matrix resin are one of the most bers. Other structural properties also vary de-
cess material at those locations is removed com- widely used forms of composite materials for pending on fiber direction.
pletely, and the remaining edges butted together. structural applications. Tapes offer the designer Tapes offer the best translation of fiber prop-
As an alternative, the prepreg can be slit where advantages in the areas of economics and trans- erties because the fibers are not crimped or dis-
a crease would normally form, and the excess lation of fiber properties. Prepreg tape is a col- torted as in fabric prepregs. Significant differ-
material can overlap, provided that it is wrinkle limated series of fiber-reinforcing tows impreg- ences exist between tape and fabric mechanical
free. When the former method is used, an addi- nated with a matrix resin. Before tape is properties. Figures 12 and 13 show typical ten-
tional ply may be required to compensate for the manufactured from fiber, the fiber is usually sile property translation differences between tape
weak butt joints in the lay-up. Darting is not rec- found in a spooled form with widely varying tow and fabric prepregs.
ommended for highly stressed, lightweight con- size, weight per unit length (denier), and filament Properties such as tack, flow, gel time, and
struction; on those occasions, prepregs should be size, as shown in Table 4. drape are critical to proper selection of material
cut in predetermined patterns such that joints in form.
successive plies do not coincide. Overlapping Tack should be adequate to allow the prepreg
joints must be deliberately placed and joint to adhere to prepared molding surfaces or pre-
widths must be controlled. Usually, patterns for ceding plies for a lay-up, but light enough to part
precutting the prepregs allow for 13 mm (0.5 in.)
overlaps on the lay-up.
When woven fabric reinforcements are laid up
on convoluted shapes, weave patterns become
distorted and the fiber directions change. Ori-
entations of 0
, 60
or 0
, 45
, 90
are used
to compensate for undetermined deficiencies.
These plying sequences provide reinforcements
for laminate plane quasi-isotropic properties.
However, ply alignments of heavily draped lay-
ups of fabric-reinforced prepregs are difficult to
control. Colored tracer fibers, woven into the
fabrics, simplify the lay-up and inspection of the
composite.
Structural composites that are required to re-
sist loads must be designed to obtain reproduc-
ible properties. Their shapes should permit the Fig. 10 Typical prepreg machine Fig. 11 Spool of graphite-epoxy tape
 Fabrics and Preforms / 65

from the backing film without loss of resin. Tack fabrication costs. Tape drapability is typically these lay-ups compared with other structural ma-
qualities can be specified to require the prepreg measured by the ability of a prepreg to be formed terials.
to remain adhered to the backing until a prede- around a small-radius rod. The pass/fail criterion Cross-plied tapes offer controlled anisotropy,
termined force is applied to peel it off. for drape is the ability to undergo this forming that is, properties can be varied and modified in
Prepregs with excessive tack generally are dif- without incurring fiber damage. This measure- selected directions, but these tapes are generally
ficult to handle without disrupting resin distri- ment translates to the ability of fabrication per- more expensive than unidirectional tapes be-
bution and fiber orientation or causing a roping sonnel to form the prepreg to complex tools. Of cause of the additional manufacturing steps. This
(fiber bundling) of the reinforcements. Constit- the physical properties mentioned, drape is one disadvantage is often overcome, however, by the
uents are not reproducible because undetermined property where tapes differ from other prepreg cost savings from using a preplied tape in part
amounts of resin are removed when the release forms. Tapes are typically less drapable than fab- lay-up.
film or backing is separated from prepreg. In ric forms of prepreg, and this difference must be Properties are controlled by the number of
general, all the disadvantages of wet lay-up sys- considered when specifying a prepreg form for plies of tape oriented in critical directions. Fig-
tems are inherent to overly tacky prepregs. manufacture. ures 15 and 16 show typical changes in tensile
Prepregs with no tack are either excessively It is essential that prepregs for structural ap- properties and when ply orientation is changed.
advanced, have exceeded their normal storage plications be staged to desirable tack and drape
life, or are inherently low in tack. Such materials qualities. The combination of manageable tack
cannot attain adequate cured properties and and drape is sometimes best attained from woven Tape Manufacturing Processes
should be discarded. Exceptions are silicones satin fabric-reinforced prepregs. Cross-plied or
and some polyimides, which can only be pre- multiplied prepregs are sometimes used to pro- Tape manufacturing processes fall into three
pared with no tack. Lay-ups with these materials vide transverse strengths for lay-ups of broad major categories: hand lay-up, machine-cut pat-
are limited to those situations where lower me- goods. The term “broad goods” refers to wide terns that are laid up by hand, and automatic ma-
chanical properties can be tolerated in exchange prepreg tape (305 mm, or 12 in.) that consists chine lay-up.
for improved heat resistance or electrical prop- of one or more plies of tape oriented at 0
or off- Hand Lay-Up. Historically, tapes have pri-
erties. A lack of tack in thermoplastic prepregs axis to each other. marily been used in hand lay-up applications in
does not interfere with their consolidation, pro- which the operator cuts lengths of tape (usually
vided that they can be heated to the melting point 305 mm, or 12 in.) and places them on the tool
of the polymer during processing. Multidirectional Tape Prepregs surface in the desired ply orientation. Although
Flow is the measure of the amount of resin this method uses one of the lower-cost forms of
squeezed from specimen as it cures (under heat When a number of tape plies are laminated at reinforcement and has a low facility investment,
and pressure) between press platens. Flow mea- several orientations, the strength of the compos- it results in a high material scrap rate, fabrication
surement indicates the capability of the resin to ite increases in the transverse direction. As the time/cost, and operator-to-operator part variabil-
fuse successive plies in a laminate and to bleed number of oriented plies is increased, the isotro- ity. The scrap factor on this type of operation can
out volatiles and reaction gases. Flow can be an pic strength is approached asymptotically. exceed 50%, depending on part complexity and
indicator of prepreg age or advancement. It is Multidirectional tapes can be manufactured size.
often desirable to optimize resin content and vis- with multiple plies of unidirectional tape ori- Auxiliary processing aids should be used ex-
cosity to attain adequate flows. In some cases, ented to the designer’s choice. These tapes are tensively to expedite the lay-up operation and to
prepreg flow can be controlled by adding thick- available in the same widths and package sizes use molds and tools more efficiently. It is cus-
ening or thixotropic additives to the resin. as unidirectional tape, with varying thickness. tomary to presize the laid-up ply before it is ap-
Gel time, the measure of the time a specimen Up to four or five plies of tape, with each ply plied to the mold. Usually, an auxiliary backing
remains between heated platens until the resin typically being 0.125 mm (0.005 in.), can be is fixed in position on the lay-up tool, which is
gels or reaches a very high viscosity stage (Ref plied together in various orientations to yield a sometimes equipped with vacuum ports to an-
11), can be an indicator of the degree of prepreg multidirectionally reinforcing tape. Figure 14 chor the backings. Plies are oriented to within
advancement. The useful life of prepregs is lim- depicts the difference between unidirectional and 1
using tape-laying heads, or manually, using
ited by the amount of staging or advancement. multidirectional tapes. straight edges, drafting machine dividing heads
Most prepregs are formulated to attain a useful By using a preplied quasi-isotropic prepreg, (Ref 4) or ruled lines on the table (Ref 4).
life of ten days or more at standard conditions. the fabricator can avoid a substantial lay-up cost. Indexes or polyester film templates also can
Life can be prolonged by cold storage, but each However, preplied prepregs are typically more be used to reduce the lay-up times on molds. The
time the prepreg is brought to thermal equilib- costly than unidirectional prepregs because of presized plies are first laid up and oriented on
rium at lay-up room temperatures, useful life is the additional work necessary to ply the tape. the templates. When the mold is available for the
shortened. Gel time measurements are used as Multioriented prepreg performance can be ac- lay-up, the plies are positioned on them and
quality control verifications (Ref 11). curately predicted from test data that have been transferred. Positioning is achieved by using the
Drape is the measure of the formability of a generated on these configurations. Tables 5 and
material around contours, which is critical to 6 show typical mechanical property data for

Fig. 12 Tensile strength comparison—fiber-epoxy tape Fig. 13 Tensile modulus comparison—fiber-epoxy

versus fabric tape versus fabric Fig. 14 Unidirectional versus quasi-isotropic lay-ups
66 / Constituent Materials

references used for indexing. Reference posts for tomatically cut in one or more ply thicknesses Automatic Machine Lay-Up. Numerically
the templates are sometimes located on the mold; using wider tapes of up to 1500 mm (60 in.), controlled automatic tape-laying machines, es-
corresponding holes in the templates fit exactly which are potentially more economical to fab- pecially in the aerospace industry, are now pro-
over the posts. In some cases, the templates are ricate. grammed to lay down plies of tape in the quasi-
shaped so that they fit only one way in the mold. The cut is normally done on a pattern-cutting isotropic patterns required by most design
The plies are rubbed out from the templates onto table, where up to eight plies of material are laid applications. In addition to being able to lay
the mold, the mold is removed, the bleeder sys- up. Various templates are located on top of the down a part in a short time and with reduced
tems are laid up, and the assemblies are bagged lay-up, and the most economical arrangement is scrappage, robotics also lend consistency to lay-
and cured. determined by matching templates. The patterns down pressures and ply-to-ply separations.
Machine-Cut Patterns. More advanced are then cut and stored until required. Cutting of These advantages are rapidly causing the aero-
technology uses machine-cut patterns that are plies can be done by laser, water jet, or high- space industry to switch from hand lay-up opera-
then laid up by hand. This method of manufac- speed blades. The machine-cut method is often tions. Automatic tape layers are evolving from
ture involves a higher facility cost but increases used in modern composites shops and is best being able to handle only limited tape widths and
part fabrication output and reduces operator er- suited for broad goods and wide tapes. A typical simple tool contours to being able to fabricate
ror in lay-up. The right-sized pattern can be au- cutting machine is shown in Fig. 17. large, heavily contoured parts. Additional infor-
mation is provided in the article “Automated
Tape Laying” in this Volume.
Table 5 Comparative strength/weight versus material form
Strength, Strength/ Strength/density, Prepreg Tow
Strength, 0
0
/ 45
/90
Density, density, 0
0
/ 45
/90

Material(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi g/cm3 6
10 cm 6
10 in. 6
10 cm 6
10 in.
Another form of prepreg is a towpreg, which
Graphite
High-strength, low modulus 2.2 0.32 0.73 0.11 1.55 14.3 5.63 4.8 1.9
is either a single tow or a strand of fiber that has
High-strength, intermediate modulus 2.4 0.35 0.80 0.12 1.52 ... ... ... ... been impregnated with matrix resin. The im-
Low-strength, high modulus 1.2 0.17 0.43 0.06 1.63 15.1 5.94 2.7 1.1 pregnated fiber is typically wound on a card-
S-glass 1.8 0.26 0.76 0.11 1.99 9.2 3.6 3.9 1.5 board core before being packaged for shipment.
E-glass 0.82 0.12 0.52 0.075 1.99 4.2 1.7 2.7 1.1
Aramid 1.5 0.22 0.39 0.057 1.36 10.9 4.29 2.9 1.1
Because a towpreg is potentially the lowest-cost
Aluminum ... 0.41 0.059 ... 2.77 ... 1.5 0.59 ... form or prepreg, it is of significant interest to
Steel ... 2.1 0.30 ... 8.00 ... 2.6 1.0 ... designers. It also lends itself to potentially low-
(a) In epoxy-resin matrix cost manufacturing schemes, such as filament
winding. Towpreg is being considered by fila-
ment winders as a way to combine the advan-
tages of low-cost part manufacture and high-per-
Table 6 Comparative stiffness/weight versus material form formance matrix resins. The fibers that are
typically used are shown in Table 7.
Stiffness, Stiffness/ Stiffness/density,
Stiffness, 0
0
/ 45
/90
density, 0
0
/ 45
/90
Manufacture. Most towpregs are converted
Density,
Material(a) MPa ksi MPa ksi g/cm3 10 cm6 6
10 in. 106 cm 106 in.
in a solvent-coating process (Fig. 18) in which
Graphite
base resin is first dissolved in a mix containing
High-strength, low modulus 0.15 0.022 0.046 0.0067 1.55 0.98 0.39 0.30 0.12 20 to 50% solvent and resin. The dry fiber is then
High-strength, intermediate modulus 0.17 0.025 0.065 0.0094 1.52 1.14 0.45 0.43 0.17 routed through the solvent-resin mix and dried
Low-strength, high modulus 0.20 0.029 0.052 0.0075 1.63 1.25 0.49 0.33 0.13 in a tower consisting of one or more heated
S-glass 0.055 0.0080 0.0025 0.0036 1.99 0.28 0.11 0.13 0.051
E-glass 0.041 0.0059 0.018 0.0026 1.99 0.21 0.083 0.09 0.035
zones. Resin content is controlled either by using
Aramid 0.073 0.011 0.025 0.0026 1.36 0.59 0.23 0.19 0.075 metering rolls after impregnation or by adjusting
Aluminum ... 0.069 0.010 ... 2.77 ... 0.25 0.098 ... the solvent-resin ratio. This drying step reduces
Steel ... 0.19 0.028 ... 8.00 ... 0.24 0.094 ... volatiles and advances the resin so that the tow-
(a) In epoxy-resin matrix preg will not adhere to itself during unspooling
in part manufacture. Towpregs can also be man-
ufactured in a hot-melt operation by filming resin
on substrate paper, impregnating strands be-

Fig. 15 Tensile modulus of elasticity of carbon-epoxy Fig. 16 Ultimate tensile strength of carbon-epoxy lam-
laminates at room temperature inates at room temperature Fig. 17 Gerber cutting machine

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
 Fabrics and Preforms / 67

Table 7 Fiber tow characteristics

Before impregnation
Yield/tow Filament size
Material m/kg yd/lb lm lin.
Graphite 300–1200 150–600 5–10 200–390
(1000–12,000
filaments/tow)
Fiberglass 490–2400 245–1200 4–13 160–510
(2450–12,240
filaments/tow)
Aramid 2000–7850 980–3900 12 470
(800–3200
filaments/tow)

Table 8 Towpreg form parameters

Parameter Typical range
Fig. 18 Typical towpreg manufacturing process
Strand weight per length, 0.74–1.48 (0.00150–0.0030)
g/m (lb/yd)
Resin content, % 28–45
Tow width, cm (in.) 0.16–0.64 (0.06–0.25)
Package size, kg (lb) 0.25–4.5 (0.5–10) thicknesses and then laying up laminates from plex cylindrical or nongeodesic forms, as shown
this wind. Mechanical properties of towpregs are in Fig. 21. This technology has the potential of
comparable to those of tapes, if they are cured making significant inroads into complex low-
under autoclave conditions. Filament-sound cost aerospace-grade part manufacture and may
structures that are not autoclave cured will typ- revolutionize the amount of composites and
tween two layers of filmed paper, and then ad-
ically have higher void contents than autoclave- types of techniques used in aircraft fuselage
vancing the resin to an intermediate point be-
cured parts. manufacture. Additional information on tow-
tween freshly mixed and cured (B-staging) on a
Applications. The two basic uses for tow- preg is provided in the article “Filament Wind-
prepreg line. However, this tends to result in a
pregs are as a filler in hard-to-form areas and in ing” in this Volume.
higher-cost towpreg.
joints of structural components such as I-beams
Forms. Table 8 shows typical form parameters
(Fig. 19) and as a replacement for low-perfor-
that a manufacturing shop might specify. A de-
mance filament-winding resins in filament-wind- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
signer must evaluate the size and complexity of
ing operations. Using a towpreg as a filler ma-
the part being designed before selecting material
terial in areas where tape or fabric prepregs will The information in this article is largely taken
parameters. Resin content will determine part
not lay down involves hand lay-up. from the following articles in Composites, Vol-
mechanical performance and thickness by deter-
Most of the development in towpreg tech- ume 1, Engineered Materials Handbook, ASM
mining fiber volume, assuming that little or no
nology has been in the area of winding, par- International, 1987:
resin is lost in the curing process. Tow width,
ticularly using a graphite-epoxy towpreg. The
which is important in establishing ply thickness ● W.D. Cumming, Unidirectional and Two-Di-
six-axis winding machine (Fig. 20) unspools the
and gap coverage, can be modified during lay-
towpreg bundles and collimates them into a rectional Fabrics, p 125–128
down. Package size can be important to manu- ● F.S. Dominguez, Unidirectional Tape Pre-
band of prepregs before laying down a unified
facturing personnel, especially when more than
band. The band of prepreg can be laid into com- pregs, p 143–145
one spool is used in the manufacturing process.
In such cases, manufacturing personnel often try
to match the sizes of spools that are used in order
to minimize spool doffs (changes) and splices in
the manufactured part.
To determine the mechanical properties of a
towpreg, it can be tested by a single-strand type
of test or by winding tows on a drum to specified

Fig. 19 Towpreg used a filler in an I-beam Fig. 20 Six-axis winding machine

68 / Constituent Materials

for Aerospace Applications, SAMPE Q.,

July 1976
4. G. Lubin, Handbook of Composites, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1982
5. H. Lee and K. Neville, Handbook of Epoxy
Resins, McGraw-Hill, 1967
6. L.S. Penn and T.T. Chiao, Epoxy Resins,
Handbook of Composites, G. Lubin, Ed.,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982 p 57–88
7. P.F. Bruins, Epoxy Resin Technology, Wiley-
Interscience, 1968
8. K.L. Mittal, Ed., Polyimides, Vol 1, Plenum,
1984
9. A. Knop and L.A. Pilato, Phenolic Resins,
Springer-Verlag, 1985
10. K.L. Forsdyke, G. Lawrence, R.M. Mayer,
and I. Patter, The Use of Phenolic Resins for
Load Bearing Structures, Engineering with
Composites, Society for the Advancement
of Material and Process Engineering, 1983
11. B.D. Agarwol and L.J. Broutman, Analysis
Fig. 21 Complex structure wound with towpreg on six-axis winding machine and Performance of Fiber Composites, John
Wiley & Sons, 1980

SELECTED REFERENCES
● F.S. Dominguez, Multidirectional Tape Pre- REFERENCES
pregs, p 146–147 ● F.K. Ko and G.-W. Du, Processing of Textile
● F.S. Dominguez, Prepreg Tow, p 151–152 1. Textiles, Vol 7.01 and 7.02, Annual Book of Preforms, Advanced Composites Manufac-
● F.S. Dominguez, Woven Fabric Prepregs, p ASTM Standards turing, T.G. Gutowski, Ed., John Wiley &
148–150 2. “Textile Test Methods,” Federal Specifica- Sons, 1997, p 157–205
● F.P. Magin III, Multidirectionally Reinforced tion 191a, 1978 ● M.M. Schwartz, Composite Materials, Vol 2,
Fabrics and Preforms, p 129–131 3. C. Zweben and J.C. Norman, “Kevlar” 49/ Processing, Fabrication, and Applications,
● W.T. McCarvill, Prepreg Resins, p 139–142 “Thornel” 300 Hybrid Fabric Composites Prentice Hall, 1997, p 114–125