FORM THREE COMPUTER STUDIES

UPDATED NOTES

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 COMPUTER
FORM 3 SIMPLIFIED NOTES

TOPIC 1: SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
System development involves identifying business requirements and developing information systems
that will effectively help to support the day-to-day operations & decision-making processes in an
organization.
Definition of a System
 A System is a set of organized components which interact in a given environment and within a
specified boundary to achieve collective goals & objectives that are emerging.
 A System is a set of items, equipments, procedures, processes, techniques, programs & people
working jointly with an aim of achieving common goals.
Examples of systems are:
 Education (school) system.
 Transport system.
 Bicycle system.
 Banking system, etc.
A system is made of various components. Once the components come together, they become
interrelated to each other and generate new goals and objectives, and as such, a system breaks down
when any of its components is removed.
E.g., a Bicycle system has all the components working together to provide motion when ridden. The
individual components cannot provide these services to a rider when on their own.
A system does some useful job; hence, it should be active & efficient, e.g., a Banking system deals with
money.
Description of a System
A system can be described as either being Soft or Hard. Soft systems:
These are usually the human activity systems.
They are described as soft because of 3 main reasons;
1. Their boundaries keep on changing.
2. Their goals & objectives usually conflict, and may not be captured clearly at any one given time.
This is because; they are based on human factors such as attitudes & preferences.
3. It is difficult to clearly define their exact measures of performance. Examples of soft systems:
i). A Political system: - it is very difficult to come up with a system that will predict the
political mood in a country over a given period of time.
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ii). A sales tracking & prediction system in an organization: - sales in an organization depend on human
factors such as attitude in the market place.
Hard systems:
These are systems whose goals & objectives are clearly defined, and the outcomes from their
processes are predictable and can be modeled accurately.
Hard systems are based on proven scientific laws such as mathematical formulas or Engineering
solutions.
Example of a hard system:
i). Stock management system in a supermarket: - it is possible to know exactly the stock levels, cost,
selling price, and to predict accurately the profit if all the stock is sold.

Note. A good system should have features of both soft & hard systems, e.g., a stock management
system should be able to show when the demand for a certain item rises so that a decision can be
made on when to buy more stock. Similarly, new demand is driven by soft aspects in people’s lives
such as attitude & seasons.

CHARACTERISTICS (FEATURES) OF A SYSTEM

All systems have some common characteristics. Some of these characteristics are:
1). Holistic thinking
A system contains a set of interacting elements. However, in holistic thinking, a system
is considered as a whole unit.
Note. The concept of a system emerged from early psychologists who believed that the mind was a
whole unit, rather than a collection of psychological parts.
The various components that make up a system may be simple in nature, but when combined, they
create something complex whose overall goals are more sophisticated than those of the individual
components.

2). Purpose
A system must be designed to achieve a specific predetermined objective, e.g., one main objective of a
school system is to enable the students to excel in national examinations.
The objectives that a system is supposed to achieve will enable the system developers measure the
performance of the system during its operation.

3). System boundaries and environment

Each system is required to operate within a specific framework or limits. The space within which the
components of a system operate is known as its boundary. Outside this boundary is the
environment, from which inputs are received & to which outputs are communicated.
Entities that fall outside the boundary but interact with the system are called external entities, and they
form part of the system environment. External entities provide the inputs & also receive the outputs
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 from the system.
e.g., the external entities to a school system may include; Parents, various suppliers, and the society.
Therefore, a system operates within specified boundaries, and interacts with other systems.

4). Sub-systems
Each system is made up of different components (or other systems) that communicate with each
other. These systems are described as Sub-systems.This means that, a system does not exist
alone, but it is composed of subsystems, which are also made up of other subsystems.
Example;
The Classroom system is part of a School system, which is a subsystem of the Ministry of
Education. The Ministry of Education is part of the Government, while the Government is part of the
Global system.
Therefore, every system is a component of a larger system.

5). Inputs & outputs

A system communicates with its environment by receiving inputs & giving outputs.
Example;
A manufacturing firm can be considered as a system that gets inputs in form of raw materials
from the environment and transforms them into finished products (outputs), which are released
into the environment.

6). Process
A system will usually transform data from one state to another.
Usually, after the raw data is collected & prepared into a form suitable for input, it is then
manipulated into information using the given procedures or instructions. The processing may be
manual, clerical, electro-mechanical or automatic to obtain the information.

7). System control

A system has some controls that help it not to operate beyond its boundaries. Control is the
method by which a system adapts to changes in the environment in order to give the expected
output or to perform to the expected level.
Control is normally achieved through feedback. Feedback is a check within a system, which
ensures that the objectives of the system are achieved. They assist the system by monitoring the
environment in which it operates in order to find out any deviation. If any deviation is detected,
then the appropriate steps are taken to rectify this error.
The feedback may involve having the outputs from the process of the system being fed back to
the control mechanism. The control mechanism will then adjust control signals that are fed to the
process, which then ensures that the output meets the set expectations.

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 The figure below shows a system that has feedback to the control function.

Input System Output

Control signals Control Feedback

Example;
A motor vehicle manufacturing company is expected to produce several vehicles per day. If the
demand increases, the feedback will show that the company is underperforming.
Control signals can then be issued to speed up the movement of units on the Assembly line so as
to increase production.

8). System entropy (decay)

A system slowly becomes useless to the user either due to improvement in technology, new
management policies or change in user requirements.
Therefore, a system must be reviewed with the aim of improving it or to developing a new one.
9). A system must give priority to the objectives of the organization as a whole as compared to the
objectives of a subsystem.

Open and Closed systems

A system can be described as being open or closed.

Open systems:
An Open system is that which interacts and communicates with its environment constantly. It
receives inputs from & gives output to the environment.
Examples of open systems;
 Business organizations.
 Information systems.
- Open systems normally adapt to changes in the environment, e.g., for any business
organization to exist, it must be able to adapt to the changing market prices, competition, etc.
- An open system has an unlimited scope when providing the services of the organization.
- In an open system, relevant variables keep on interacting.
- An open system is generally flexible & abstract.

Closed systems:
A Closed system is that which does not interact or communicate with its environment. It does not
communicate to or receive communication from its environment.
- Closed systems do not receive inputs or give output to their environment.

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- A closed system can correct or control itself; hence, it does not obtain modification from its
environment.
- A closed system has a limited scope when providing the services of the organization.
- The variables in a closed system are self-contained.
- A closed system is rigid & mathematical.

Example of a closed system;

 A computer Program. It accepts previously defined inputs, processes them & gives previously
defined outputs.

Revision Questions.
1. What do you mean by a System?
2. Differentiate between soft systems and hard systems.
3. List five characteristics of a system.
4. Explain the term system boundary.
a). What is system Control?
b). Why do we need feedback in a system?
c). Draw a well-labelled diagram that shows a system that is controlled through feedback.
5. Distinguish between open and closed systems.

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 TOPIC: 2 INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Definition of an Information system:
An Information system is an arrangement of people, data processes & information that work together
to support and improve the day-to-day operations in a business and the decision- making process.
Generally, the Information system of an organization is the complete apparatus for handling all aspects
of information within an organization. It includes people, procedures, technological, and other
resources that collect, transform & disseminate information in the organization.

Purposes of an Information system:

The main purposes of an Information system in an organization are: -
1. To support information processing tasks such as data collection, processing & communication.
2. Help in decision making by collecting data, analyzing it, and generating reports.
The process whereby a computer-based information system is used to capture operational data,
analyze it, and generate reports that can be used to support the decision making process in an
organization is referred to as Online analytical processing.
3. Supports sharing of information between departments/users in a given organization. The
departments can share the same electronic information stored in central database.

Circumstances that necessitate the development of new Information systems:

The following are some of the circumstances that bring about the need to develop new information
systems:
1). New opportunities: - a chance to improve the quality of internal processes and service delivery in
the organization may arise.
2). Invention of new systems which are more successful than the existing ones.
3). Problems: - the user may encounter some difficulties in the operations of the existing system,
which prevent the organization from meeting its goals.
4). The management may identify an area of poor performance, which increases the level of indirect
expenses.
5). Directives: - these are requirements imposed by the management, government, or external
influences.
System Analysis and Design

System Analysis:
 System analysis is the process of examining an activity, procedure, technique or organization to
determine what must be accomplished and how best the operations may be accomplished in order
to achieve the predetermined objectives.
 The process of collecting & analyzing facts that relate to an existing situation, diagnosing
problems, and using the facts gathered to design & implement an effective computerized system.

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System Design:
System design is the activity that involves identifying possible solutions to a problem, and then deciding
on the most appropriate system to solve the problem.
System design is concerned with the design of a computerized application based on the facts
disclosed during the Analysis stage.
In system design, the nature & contents of inputs, files & outputs are formulated and described in order
to show how they are connected by processing procedures, and for the purpose of developing a new
(or, an improved) system.

Information system Analyst:

An Information system Analyst is a person who identifies the problems & needs of an organization,
then designs & develops algorithms and procedures on how to solve these problems on a computer.
The Analyst uses scientific techniques so as to determine where & how improvements can be made in
order to meet objectives in a more efficient, efficient, and economical manner.

Roles of an Information system analyst

1. Reviews the existing system & makes recommendations on how to improve or implement an
alternative system.
2. Works hand in hand with programmers to construct a computerized system.
3. Coordinates the training of new system users and owners.
4. He is the overall project manager of the information system being implemented. Some of his
project management duties include: assuring quality, keeping within schedule & budgeting.

Revision Questions.
1. Define the following terms: i). Information system.
ii). Online analytical processing.
2. State and explain three purposes of Information systems in organizations.
3. Highlight three circumstances that necessitate the development of new information systems.
4. List down four roles of an Information system analyst.

THEORIES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

There are 3 main theories or methods used in system development.
1. Traditional approach.
2. Rapid Application Development (RAD).
3. Structured approach.

Traditional approach.
In the Traditional approach, there is no formal documented methodology to be followed by all system
developers in the organization.
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The method relies mostly on the skills & experience of the individual members carrying out the project
development.

Disadvantage of traditional approach.

i). The structure of the old system is not changed in anyway; hence, the weaknesses of the old
system are not corrected, and are carried forward to the new system.
Example;
In a Bank, a manual system is characterized by long queues & poor controls. If the Traditional
approach is used, each Cashier will simply be given a computer. The long queues might remain
and lack of controls increase because no value was added to the old information system.

Rapid Application Development (RAD).

This method heavily relies on Information Technology (computers). This is because; there is need
for businesses or organizations to develop & implement information systems quickly enough for
them to maintain a competitive advantage in the market.

Advantage of RAD.
Ensures faster development of information systems, and as a result, increase production of an
organization.

Disadvantage of RAD.
- The working system may be weak due to quick development, i.e., a system may be working well but
may not have the necessary inbuilt security mechanisms.

Approaches used in Rapid Application Development.

There are 3 different approaches/techniques used in Rapid Application Development; (a). Prototyping.
(b). Small team With Advanced Tools (SWAT).
(c). Joint Application Development (JAD). Prototyping
A Prototype is a small working model, which is developed to test ideas & assumptions about the new
system.
Like any computer-based system, a prototype consists of working software that accepts input,
performs calculations, produces printed or displayed information, or performs other meaningful
activities. The design & the information produced by the system are tested & evaluated by the users.
Note. Use of prototypes makes it possible for system developers to quickly capture user

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requirements by designing system interfaces in the presence of the user.

Structured approach
In structured approach, there is a defined set of stages that should be followed when developing a
system. Each stage is well documented and specifies the activities to be carried out by the system
analyst and his team while developing a system.

Revision Questions.
1. Explain three system development theories and methods.
2. (a) State one disadvantage of the Traditional approach in system development.
(b) State the main advantage of Rapid Application Development method.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The stages of developing a system are called the System development life cycle (SDLC). The 7 main
stages in system development include:
1. Problem recognition and definition.
2. Information gathering.
3. Requirements specification.
4. System design.
5. System construction (coding).
6. System testing and implementation.
7. System review and maintenance.

The following diagram represents the 7 stages, which must be followed in the system development
life cycle: -

Problem Recognition and Definition. Information gathering.

Requirements specification. System development stage System Design.

System Construction (coding).

System Testing and Implementation

System Review and Maintenance.

System operation and support stage
The life cycle of an information system is divided into 2 major parts: - a). The development stage.
b). The operation and support stage.
Note. Each stage serves a role in the problem-solving process, and therefore they must be followed
systematically.

Problem recognition
Problem recognition is done during the Preliminary investigation. A preliminary investigation
is carried to find out if really there is need for change.
During the problem recognition stage, the system analyst seeks to answer two questions:
1. Is the proposed project worth looking at?
2. Is the project worth pursuing?
After this, the system analyst then defines the scope of the project and tries to establish the limitations
(risks involved), the budget (i.e., cost, resources/manpower involved) & time involved.
Some of the most common limitations are:
- Lack of finance, and lack of appropriate technology (expertise) to develop the system.

Problem definition (Problem analysis)

Problem definition is the process of identifying & understanding the problem, and finding out any
limitations that may limit the solution.
At this stage, the system analyst is required to find out much about the existing system (whether
manual or computerised) in order to come up with a good & relevant proposal for the new system.
A special study called a feasibility study is carried out. A Feasibility study is a study carried out to
establish the costs & benefits of the proposed new system.
The study tries to;
1. Justify the new system in terms of the capital to be employed, equipments required, personnel, and
the procedures necessary for the new system.
2. Determine whether the existing system, be it manual, mechanical or computerized, is adequate, or it
should be modified, updated or replaced.
The feasibility of a system is accessed in 4 ways: - 1). Technical feasibility.
This tries to establish whether the existing technology can be developed (upgraded) or is
sufficient to support the new system.
It also tries to find out whether the staff has relevant technical skills to develop & use the new
system.
2). Economic feasibility.
Economic feasibility study tries to establish whether developing the new system is cost

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 effective by comparing all the costs & benefits of the proposed system.
I.e., it tries to find out whether the expected benefits will exceed the costs of developing & operating
the proposed system.
3). Operational feasibility.
Operational feasibility is concerned with the operation of the office. It establishes whether the
management, employees, customers, suppliers & other users are happy, willing and able to
operate, use and support the proposed new system.
For example;
When carrying out operational feasibility study, the analyst tries to:
 Ask the users whether they accept the new system?
 Find out whether the staff has the necessary skills or manpower? If they don’t have the
necessary skills, how are they going to acquire them? Do they require training or not?
 Look at the kind of job assignments that will be affected.
 Look at how the firm will be reorganized to accommodate the new system, e.g., office space,
comfort, etc.

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 TOPIC 3: DATA PROCESSING
Data processing deals with how data is organized & processed in the computer. DATA:
Data is a collection of facts & figures, which can be processed to produce information.

Data are the facts relating to an activity in a given environment.

The activity can be Accounting, Inventory control, etc. Environment can be business, scientific,
education, etc.

Examples:
In an educational environment, when students sit for exams, the grades obtained represent the data to
be processed by the computer. In this case, data can be Names of students & Marks obtained.
In a business environment, data can be the No. of Hours worked, names of employees, Stock

Data can also be described as Raw data, if they are not yet processed, i.e. if they do not convey
particular meaning to a given activity within any given environment.

It therefore means that, Data are unprocessed information consisting of details relating to business
transactions. For example, in a Payroll system, data are employee’s names, basic salary, department
number, marital status, etc.

DATA PROCESSING:

The collection, manipulation & distribution of data (i.e.) letters, numbers & graphic symbols, to achieve
certain objectives.

The processing may involve calculations, comparisons, decision-making and/or any other logic to
produce the required result.

The activity of manipulating the raw facts to generate a set of meaningful data (described as
Information), which is able to convey some meaning.

Those activities, which are concerned with the systematic recording, arranging, filing, processing, and
dissemination of facts relating to the physical events occurring in a business.

Data processing is a very important activity in any organization of any size or nature because it
generates information for decision-making.

If the data processing uses complicated processing tools or aids, e.g. the computer, it is described as
Electronic Data Processing (EDP).

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 INFORMATION.

Information is data, which is summarized and processed in the way you want it, so that it is useful in
your work.
Information is an assembly of meaningful data items.
The information in Payroll activity includes; Net pay, Total Tax deductions, etc. In Stock Control, the
information generated includes; Closing stock, Total cost of the items, Purchases, Sales, etc.
The information is obtained by applying some processing procedures onto the raw data being input.
For example, to get the Net pay in a Payroll activity, the procedure would be;
Net pay = (Basic salary + Allowances + Overtime, if any) – Taxes.
Information is the end product of data processing available at the right place, the right time and in the
right form.

The information generated by the data processing activities is very important in the working strategies
of any organization, because it is used by the organization to make decisions.

Characteristics/ Features of good Information.

It should: -
Have and serve a purpose. Be relevant to its purpose.
Be complete, accurate, and comprehensive. Have been obtained from a reliable source.
Be communicated to the right person and in the right time (i.e. it should be timely). Be clear and
understandable by the user.
The user must have confidence in it.

Relationship between Data, Data Processing, and Information.

Data are the facts which relate to any particular activity, and do not have any specific meaning.
Information is data with a definite meaning.

Data processing is the process, which transforms data into information.

In a Manufacturing industry, data may be compared to raw materials and Information to finished
products. Just as raw materials are transformed into finished products, raw data are transformed into
information.

In order to generate information from data items, a set of processing activities have to be performed on
the data items in a specific sequence depending on the desired final result. Performing these processes
is known as Data processing.

User

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Exercise.
Define the terms: Data.
Information. Data processing.
Distinguish between the following terms: Data.
Data processing. Information
Using examples, explain the difference between ‘Data’ and ‘Information’.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE.

Data processing cycle refers to the various stages involved in converting data into information.

Basic stages in the Data processing cycle.

There are 5 primary elements/functions of data processing system. They include; Input, Processing,
Storage, Output, and Control.

Exercise I.

(a). What is a Data Processing cycle.

(b). State and describe the stages involved in data processing cycle.
Draw and label a clear flow diagram of the stages involved in a data processing cycle.
List the various steps in the data processing cycle and briefly describe what happens at each stage.

DATA COLLECTION.
Data Collection is the process involved in getting the data from the point of its origin to the computer
in a form suitable for processing.

Note. Data collection starts at the source of the raw data & ends when valid data is within the computer
in a form ready for processing.

DATA CAPTURE & DATA ENTRY.

Data Entry:

Nowadays, most end-users input data to the computer using Keyboards on PCs, Workstations, or
Terminals.

Data can originate in many forms, but the computer can only accept it in a machine-sensible form.

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Problems of Data Entry.

The data to be processed by the computer must be presented in a Machine-sensible form (i.e. in the
language of a particular input device).

Note that most of the data originates in a form that is not machine-sensible. Therefore, the data
must undergo the process of Transcription before it is suitable for input to the computer.

The process of Data collection involves getting the original data to the “processing center”, transcribing
it, sometimes converting it from one medium to another, and finally getting it into the computer. This
process involves a great number of people, many machines, and much expense.

Data Capture:

Data Capture is the process of obtaining data in a computer-sensible form at the point of origin.

Obtaining of data in a computer-sensible form helps to avoid many of the problems of data entry.

The captured data may be stored in some intermediate form for later entry into the main computer in the
required form. If data is input directly into the computer at its point of origin, the data entry is said to be
On-Line. In addition, if the method of direct input is a terminal or workstation, the method of input is
known as Direct Data Entry (DDE).

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 TOPIC 3: DATA REPRESENTATION IN A COMPUTER.
Computers handle data by electrical components, e.g. Transistors, Semiconductors, Integrated Circuits
or wires, which exist in two conditions (states), ON & OFF or “1” & “0”.

Inside the computer, data is represented by storage cells, which are either electronically charged or
discharged.

Examples;

In RAM, the cells can be charged and discharged at will, and this can be used to store different data
items. The charged state of the cell can be represented by 1 (or ON), while the
uncharged state by 0 (or OFF).
In ROM, the cells are permanently set to one state.
A Transistor may be conducting or non-conducting.
A Magnetic material may be magnetized in one direction or the other. A wire may or may not be
carrying a current.

The Main memory of the computer can be considered as a collection of thousands of storage cells,
each capable of representing a binary digit.

DATA TYPES.
Data is a term used to describe a set of facts. A single fact is known as Datum. Data can be in 3 types
or forms.
Numeric data (numbers) Alphabetic data.
Alphanumeric data. Numbers:
Numbers can be expressed as either;

Integers - whole numbers, e.g., 124, -26, or

Real numbers - numbers with decimal points, e.g., 1.23, -2.6.

Note. A whole number is Real if it is written with a decimal point, e.g., 25 is an integer, but
25.0 is real.

Alphabetic data:

This is data made from combination of alphabetic characters, such as names, title, marital status, e.g.
“John”, “Prof.”, “Married”.

Alphanumeric data (Strings):

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A string is any sequence of characters.

This is data made from combination of alphabetic characters, numerals and/or special characters.

Examples;

Names - NG’ANG’A, ANN NDUVA Address - P.O BOX 299, UGUNJA

Date - November 14, 1990 Account numbers - AO133
Department - Sales department
Messages - Incorrect. Try again

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TOPIC 4: ELEMENTARY PROGRAMMING PRINCIPLES
Definition of terms

Computer Program:

A computer program is a set of coded instructions given to the computer, and represents a logical
solution to a problem. It directs a computer in performing various operations/tasks on the data
supplied to it.

Computer programs may be written by the hardware manufacturers, Software houses, or a

programmer to solve user problems on the computer.

Programming:

Programming is the process of designing a set of instructions (computer programs) which can be
used to perform a particular task or solve a specific problem.

It involves use of special characters, signs and symbols found in a particular programming language
to create computer instructions.

The programming process is quite extensive. It includes analyzing of an application, designing of a

solution, coding for the processor, testing to produce an operating program, and development of other
procedures to make the system function.

The program created must specify in detail the logical steps to be taken & the method of processing
the data input into the computer in order to carry out the specified task.
A computer program performs the following: Accepts data from outside the computer as its input.
Carries out a set of processes on the data within the computer memory.
Presents the results of this processing as its output, and Stores the data for future use.

Programming Languages:

A programming language is a set of symbols (a language) which a computer programmer uses to

solve a given problem using a computer.
The computer must be able to translate these instructions into machine-readable form when arranged
in a particular sequence or order.

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TERMS USED IN COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
Source program (source code)
The term Source program refers to program statements that the programmer enters in the program
editor window, and which have not yet been translated into machine-readable form.

Source code is the code understood by the programmer, and is usually written in high-level language
or Assembly language.

Object code (object program).

The term Object code refers to the program code that is in machine-readable (binary) form. This is the
code/language the computer can understand, and is produced by a Compiler or
Assembler after translating the Source program into a form that can be readily loaded into the computer.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

A computer uses & stores information in binary form, and therefore, it cannot understand programs
written in either high-level or low-level languages. This means that, any program code written in
Assembly language or high-level language must be translated into Machine language, before the
computer can recognize & run these programs.
A Translator is special system software used to convert the Source codes (program statements written in
any of the computer programming languages) to their Object codes (computer language equivalents).

The Translators reside in the main memory of the computer, and use the program code of the high-
level or Assembly language as input data, changes the codes, and gives the output program in
machine-readable code.
In addition, translators check for & identify some types of errors (e.g., Syntax/grammatical errors) that
may be present in the program being translated. They will produce error messages if there is a mistake
in the code.
Each language needs its own translator. Generally, there are 3 types of language translators:
Assembler.
Interpreter.
Compiler.

Note. Interpreters & Compilers translate source programs written in high-level languages to their
machine language equivalents.

Assembler
An assembler translates programs written in Assembly language into machine language that the
computer can understand and execute.

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Functions of an Assembler.
It checks whether the instructions written are valid, and identifies any errors in the program.

The Assembler will display these errors as well as the complete source and object programs. If the
program has no errors, the job control will let it run immediately, or save the object program so that it
may run it later without translating it again.
It assigns memory locations to the names the programmer uses.
E.g., the Assembler keeps a table of these names so that if an instruction refers to it, the Assembler can
easily tell the location to which it was assigned.
It generates the machine code equivalent of the Assembly instructions.
Usually, the Assembler generates a machine code only when no errors are detected. Some of the errors
include;
Typing mistakes.
Using the wrong format for an instruction.
Specifying a memory location outside the range 0 – 2047.

Note. The Assembler cannot detect Logic errors. The programmer knows of these errors only when
the program is run & the results produced are incorrect (not what the programmer expected). The
programmer must therefore, go through the program & try to discover why an incorrect result was
being produced.

Interpreter
An interpreter translates a source program word by word or line by line. This allows the CPU to
execute one line at a time.

The Interpreter takes one line of the source program, translates it into a machine instruction, and then it
is immediately executed by the CPU. It then takes the next instruction, translates it into a machine
instruction, and then the CPU executes it, and so on.

The translated line is not stored in the computer memory. Therefore, every time the program is needed
for execution, it has to be translated.
Compiler

A compiler translates the entire/whole source program into object code at once, and then executes it in
machine language code. These machine code instructions can then be run on the computer to perform
the particular task as specified in the high-level program.

The process of translating a program written in a high-level source language into machine
language using a compiler is called Compilation.

For a given machine, each language requires its own Compiler. E.g., for a computer to be able
translate a program written in FORTRAN into machine language; the program must pass through the
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FORTRAN compiler (which must ‘know’ FORTRAN as well as the Machine language of the
computer).

The object code file can be made into a fully executable program by carrying out a Linking process,
which joins the object code to all the other files that are needed for the execution of the program. After
the linking process, an executable file with an .EXE extension is generated. This file is stored on a
storage media.

Points to note.
The job of a Compiler is much more difficult than that of an Assembler in that, a single statement in a
high-level language is equivalent to many machine instructions.

The format of an Assembly instruction is fairly fixed, while high-level languages give a lot of freedom
in the way the programmer writes statements.

Functions of a compiler.
A Compiler performs the following tasks during the compilation process:

It identifies the proper order of processing, so as to execute the process as fast as possible &
minimize the storage space required in memory.

It allocates space in memory for the storage locations defined in the program to be executed. It reads
each line of the source program & converts it into machine language.
It checks for Syntax errors in a program (i.e., statements which do not conform to the grammatical
rules of the language). If there are no syntax errors, it generates machine code equivalent to the given
program.

It combines the program (machine) code generated with the appropriate subroutines from the library.
It produces a listing of the program, indicating errors, if any. Differences between Compilers and
Interpreters
Interpreter Compiler
Translates & executes each statement of the Translates all the source code statements at
source code one at a time. once as a unit into their corresponding object
codes, before the computer can execute them.
The source code instruction is translated &
immediately obeyed by the computer hardware A Compiler translates the entire source
before the next instruction can be translated. program first to machine code, and then the
(Translation & execution go together). code is executed by the CPU.
(Translation & execution are separate
phases) needed for execution; hence, it is slower than compiling.
Translates the program each time it is

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 Interpreted object codes take less memory Compiled programs (object codes) can be saved on a
compared to compiled programs. storage media and run when required; hence executes
faster than interpreted programs.
For an Interpreter, the syntax (grammatical)
errors are reported & corrected before the Compiled programs require more memory as their object
execution can continue. files are larger.

An Interpreter can relate error messages to For a Compiler, the syntax errors are reported & corrected
the source program, which is always after the source code has been translated to its object code
available to the Interpreter. This makes equivalent.
debugging of a program easier when using
an Interpreter than a Compiler. Once the source program has been translated, it is no
longer available to the Compiler, so the error messages
are usually less meaningful.

Purpose of fourth generation languages.

The 4GL’s were designed to meet the following objectives: -

To speed up the application-building process, thereby increasing the productivity of a programmer.
To enable quick & easy amendments and alteration of programs. To reduce development &
maintenance costs.
To make languages user-friendly. This is because, the 4GL’s are designed to be user-oriented, unlike
the 3rd generation languages which are problem & programmer oriented.
To allow non-professional end-users to develop their own solutions.

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To generate bug-free codes from high-level expressions of requirements.

Examples of 4GLs are: Visual Basic

Delphi Pascal
Visual COBOL (Object COBOL) Access Basic

Advantages of fourth generation languages.

They are user-based, and therefore, easy to learn & understand.
The grammar of 4GL’s is very close to the natural English language. It uses menus & prompts to
guide a non-specialist to retrieve data with ease.
Very little training is required in order to develop & use 4GL programs.
They provide features for formatting of input, processing, & instant reporting.

FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (5GL’S).

The 5GL’s are designed to make a computer solve a problem by portraying human-like intelligence.

The languages are able to make a computer solve a problem for the programmer; hence, he/she does
not spend a lot of time in coming up with the solution. The programmer only
thinks about what problem needs to be solved and what conditions need to be met without worrying
about how to implement an algorithm to solve the problem.

5GLs are mostly used in artificial intelligence. Examples of 5GLs are:

PROLOG LISP
Mercury OCCAM.

LISP (LISt Processing)

In LISP, both programs & data are arranged (structured) as lists.

It is used in artificial intelligence. However, it is not suitable for commercial data processing
applications.

PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic)

PROLOG was developed from LISP by the Japanese.

It is designed for use with Expert systems & Artificial Intelligence. It is mostly used for solving
problems, which involve objects and relationships between objects.

Like LISP, it is not suitable for commercial data processing applications.

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OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES (OOPs)

Object-Oriented Programming is a new approach to software development in which data &

procedures that operate on data are combined into one object.

OOPs use objects. An Object is a representation of a software entity such as a user-defined window
or variable. Each object has specific data values that are unique to it (called state) and a set of the
things it can accomplish called (functions or behaviour).

Several objects can be linked together to form a complete program. Programs send messages to an
object to perform a procedure that is already embedded in it. This process of having data and
functions that operate on the data within an object is called encapsulation.

The data structure & behaviour of an object is specified/described by a template (called a class).
Classes are hierarchical, and it is possible to pass the data & behaviour of an object in one class down
the hierarchy.

Object-Oriented programming enables rapid program development. Every object has properties such
as colour, size, data source, etc, which can be set easily without much effort. In addition, every object
has events associated with it that can be used to trigger certain actions, e.g. remove the window from
the screen on clicking the ‘Close’ button.

OOP has contributed greatly to the development of graphical user interface operating systems
and application programs.
Examples of Object-oriented programming languages are: -

Simula C++
SmallTalk Java
Java is sometimes associated with development of websites, but it can be used to create whole
application programs that do not need a web browser to run.

JAVA
Java is an OOP language that resembles Object C (a simplified form of C++).

The code of Java displays graphics, accesses the network, and interfaces with users via a set of
capabilities known as classes. Classes define similar states & common methods for the behavior of
an object.

JAVA programs are not compiled into machine code; instead, they are converted into a collection of
bytes that represent the code for an abstract Java Virtual machine (VM). A Java interpreter running on
a physical machine is then used to translate those bytes into local actions, such as printing a string or

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drawing a button.

WEB SCRIPTING LANGUAGES.

Web scripting languages are mostly used to create or add functionalities on web pages.

Web pages are used for creating Web sites on the Internet where all sorts of advertising can be done.

Web pages are hypertext (plain-text) documents written using a language called HyperText Markup
Language (HTML). HTML documents have a file extension of .Html or .Htm.

Note. HTML doesn’t have the declaration part and control structures, and has many limitations.
Therefore, to develop functional websites, it must be used together with other web scripting languages
like JavaScript, VBScript and Hypertext Preprocessor.

Comparison of Programming languages.

Machine language Assembly language High-level languages

Instruction set is made up of Instruction set is made up of Instruction set is similar to
binary digits (0’s & 1’s). Mnemonics & labels. English language statements &
mathematical operators.
Instruction is made up of 2 The instruction varies
Instruction is made of 2 parts:
operation code & operand. parts: operation code & operand, depending on the particular
but comments can be added. language.
Uses an Assembler to convert
No translation is needed. (This
is the computer language; the assembly language sourceUses compiler or interpreter
hence, the codes to their object code Compiler translates all

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computer understands it equivalents the source code at once into
directly). object code; Interpreter
Executed by the hardware Executed faster than High- translates line byline.
directly & is faster. level, but slower than the Translation & execution is very
machine code programs. slow.

Difficult to learn, develop It’s easier to learn, develop

& maintain. & maintain as compared to Easy to learn, develop, maintain
machine code programs. and use.

Programs are lengthy &Like machine code language,

tedious. the programs are lengthy & Programs are shorter & simpler
tedious. than Machine & assembly
lang. programs.
They take a shorter time to
It is time-consuming to
develop machine develop as compared to
code Developing High-level
programs. machine code programs, but language programs takes very
take longer than High- level short time.
language programs.

Used in applications where Like machine language,

efficient use of the CPU time Assembly language programsMost High-level languages are
is necessary, e.g., developing are used in applications wheregeneral-purpose, & can be used
Operating systems & other efficient use of the CPU time isto do almost all computer-
Controltoprograms
Factors considerthat necessary.
when choosing processing tasks.
a Programming language.
coordinate
The followingthefactors
working of be considered when choosing a Programming language to use in
should
peripherals.
solving a problem:
The availability of the relevant translator
Whether the programmer is familiar with the language Ease of learning and use
Purpose of the program, i.e., application areas such as education, business, scientific, etc. Execution
time
Applications that require quick response are best programmed in machine code or assembly
language. High-level languages are not suitable for such application because, they take long to be
translated & executed.

Development time

Development time is the time a programmer takes to write and run a program.
High-level languages are easy to read, understand and develop; hence, they require less development
time. Machine code & Assembly languages are relatively difficult to read,
understand and develop; hence, they are time-consuming.
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Popularity
The language selected should be suitable and/or successful in the market with respect to the problems
to be solved.

Documentation
It should have accompanying documentation (descriptions) on how to use the language or maintain
the programs written in the language.

Maintenance

Programs are developed to solve specific problems, and the problems keep on changing; hence, the
programs are also changed to perform the new functions.

Program maintenance is the activity of incorporating more routines onto the program, modifying the
existing routines or removing the obsolete routines to make the program adapt to a functionally
enhanced environment.

The maintenance is made easier if the language used is easy to read and understand.

Availability of skilled programmers

The language selected should have a pool of readily available programmers to ease the
programming activity, and reduce development time.

Review Questions

(a). What is a Programming language?

(b). Explain the two levels of programming languages. (a). What is meant by ‘Machine language’?
(b). Explain why machine language programming is so error-prone.
(c). Show the difference between Machine language and Assembly language.
(d). Give two advantages & three disadvantages of Machine language programming. (a). What
are High-level languages?
(b). Give the features/characteristics of high-level programming languages.
(c). Describe briefly how a program written in high-level programming language becomes a
machine code program ready for operational use.
(d). Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using a High-level programming language for
writing a program.
(e). List four examples of high-level programming languages. Indicate the application of each
language in computing.
(a). What is meant by program portability?
(b). Why are low-level languages not considered to be portable?
List 8 factors that need to be considered when selecting a programming language.

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 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT.

Stages involved in the program development cycle.

The process of program development can be broken down into the following stages: Problem
recognition (Identification of the problem).
Problem definition.
Program design. Program coding.
Program testing & debugging.
Program Implementation and maintenance. Program documentation.

Problem recognition.

Problem recognition refers to the understanding and interpretation of a particular problem.

The programmer must know what problem he/she is trying to solve. He/she must also understand
clearly the nature of the problem & the function of the program.

In order to understand a problem, look for the keywords such as compute, evaluate, compare, etc.

Usually, a programmer identifies problems in the environment and tries to solve them by writing a
computer program.

There are 3 situations that cause the programmer to identify a problem that is worth solving:

Problems or undesirable situations that prevent an individual or organizations from achieving their
purpose.

Opportunity to improve the current program.

A new directive given by the management requiring a change in the current system.

Sample problem: Develop a program that can be used to calculate/find the area of a circle. Use the
equation A = π * r2.

Problem definition (Problem Analysis).

In Problem definition, the programmer tries to define (determine) the:
Output expected from the program.
Inputs needed to generate the output information. Processing activities (requirements), and
Kind of files which may be needed.

The programmer should write a narrative on what the program will do, and how it is meant to
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achieve the intended purpose. Within this narrative, he/she is required to determine what data is to be
input & what information is to be output.

For example:

In calculating the area of any circle, the parameters needed to determine the area of any circle are:

Input: (a) Pie (π) which is a constant.

(b) The radius of the circle.
Process: The formula for calculating area of a circle, which is π * radius * radius. Output:
The area of the circle (A).
At the end of the problem definition, the programmer is required to write a requirements
report/document for the new program. This document will enable the programmer to come up with
a program design that meets the needs at hand.

Note. Problem definition should be done thoroughly to ensure user satisfaction, and to facilitate the
subsequent stages in the program development cycle. A failure at this stage usually results in a
system that will not work as intended, or that may not work at all.

Program design

Program design is the actual development of the program’s process or problem solving logic called
the Algorithm.

It involves identifying the processing tasks required to be carried out in order to solve the problem.

The design stage enables the programmer to come up with a model of the expected program (or a
general framework (outline) of how to solve the problem, and where possible, break it into a
sequence of small & simple steps.
The models show the flow of events throughout the entire program from the time data is input to the
time the program gives out the expected information.

The processing tasks must be in order & systematic. Therefore, the programmer identifies the
processing tasks required, and the exact order in which they are to be carried out.

The design process does not take account of the programming language to be used in the final
product, since it only defines program logic.

Program design provides for easy maintenance.

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Note. It is important to design programs before entering them into the computer. The programmer
should only attempt to covert a design into a program code after ensuring that it is logically correct.
If possible, check the logical order on the desk.

Some programmers produce rough & ready solutions at a Keyboard, and continue to amend the
programs until eventually the program appears to do what was expected. This is not recommended
in programming because of the following reasons:

The final code may not be easy to follow, since it was just cobbled together. Variable names &
specific items of code may not be documented.
Programs produced by continuous amendments & changing of codes mostly lead to unforeseen
side effects.
E.g., there may not have been plan for testing the program or procedures, hence, the program may
easily fail.

A programmer may be asked to modify the code at a later date. Without sufficient documentation,
the programmer will be forced to trace through the program in order to gain an insight into how the
program functions.

Modular programming
Many programs are non-monolithic (i.e., they are not usually made up of one large block of code).
Instead, they are made up of several units called modules, that work together to form the whole
program with each module performing a specific task.
This approach makes a program flexible, easier to read, and carry out error correction.

Program coding

Program coding is the actual process of converting a design model into its equivalent program.

Coding requires the programmer to convert the design specification (algorithm) into actual
computer instructions using a particular programming language.

For example;
The programmer may be required to write the program code either in Pascal, C++, Visual Basic or
Java, and develop (invent) suitable identifiers, variable names, & their data types. However,
remember that, at this stage the coding is still a Pencil & paper exercise.

The end result of this stage is a source program that can be translated into machine readable form
for the computer to execute and solve the target problem.

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Rules followed in coding a program.
Use the standard identifiers or reserved words.
Make the program more readable by using meaningful identifiers. Don’t use similar variables.
Keep spellings as normal as possible.
Use comments to explain variables & procedures. This makes the program readable. Avoid tricks
– write the program using straightforward codes that people can readily understand.
Modularize your program.
Sample programs written in Pascal language.

Example 1:
Develop a program code that would be used to solve the equation of a straight line given by the
expression: Y = mx + c
Program StraighLine (input, output); VAR
y, m, x, c: INTEGER;
BEGIN
Writeln (‘Input the value of M’); Readln (M);
Writeln (‘Input the value of X’); Readln (X);
Writeln (‘Input the value of C’); Readln (C);
Y: = (m * x) +c;
Writeln (‘The value of y is:’, Y);

Pascal code Explanation

Program StraightLine (input, output); This is the program Header.
The word “Program” indicates the beginning of the
program whose name is StraightLine.
The (input, output) statements shows that the program
expects some input from the Keyboard and display the
output on the Screen.
VAR VAR is short form for Variable. A variable is a
location for data in the computer memory.
This statement tells the computer that variables are about
to be declared. When a variable is declared, the
computer sets aside some memory space to store a value
in the variable.

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y, m, x, c: INTEGER; Four variables of type Integer have been
declared. This means that, the memory spaces that will
be set aside can only hold values that are whole numbers.
BEGIN The Begin statement marks the start of the
program body. Statements in this section are executed
by the computer. E.g., execution

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 starts by asking the user to input the value of m.
Writeln (‘Input the value of M’); The Writeln statement displays whatever is
between the inverted commas in the brackets. The statements
will be sent to the screen exactly the way they appear in the
brackets.
This is because; the inverted commas are meant to make the
output readable on the screen.
To display the value held in a variable on the screen, remove
the inverted commas and write the name of the variable in the
brackets, e.g., Writeln (y) will display the value held in the
variable y.
Readln (M); The Read or Readln statement reads a value
and stores it in a variable.
When the program is running, a Read/Readln statement in
the code will displays blinking cursor that indicates to the
user where to type the input.
Y: = (m * x) +c; Calculates the value of y. in Pascal, the symbol ‘: =’ is called
the Assignment statement.
The values on the right are calculated then the answer stored
in the variable y which is on the left of the assignment
symbol.
Writeln (‘The value of y is:’, Y); The Writeln displays the value held in the
variable y on the screen.
Note. Y is not within the inverted commas.
END. The ‘END.’ statement shows the end of a
program.

Example 2:

Program AreaCircle (input, output);

CONST
Pi = 3.142;
VAR
Radius, Area: REAL;
BEGIN
Writeln (‘Enter the radius’); Readln (Radius);
Area: = Pi * Radius * Radius; Writeln (‘The Area is’, Area);

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 Pascal code Explanation
Program AreaCircle (input, output); The Header of the program.
The statements in ( ) shows that the user inputs
data via Keyboard and the program display
information on the Screen.
CONST A constant has been declared with a name Pi and
Pi = 3.142; value 3.142.
VAR Variables with fractional parts have been declared.
Radius, Area: REAL;
BEGIN Marks the beginning of the program body.
Writeln (‘Enter the radius’); Displays on the screen the string between the
inverted commas.
Readln (Radius); Displays a blinking cursor that tells the user that an
input is needed before the program can continue.

Area: = Pi * Radius * Radius; Calculates the Area. An assignment statement (:

=) has been used.
Writeln (‘The Area is’, Area); Displays the value stored in the variable Area.
END. Marks the end of the program.

Revision Questions.
State the rules followed in coding a program.

Program Testing and Debugging

After designing & coding, the program has to be tested to verify that it is correct, and any errors
detected removed (debugged).

TESTING:

Testing is the process of running computer software to detect/find any errors (or bugs) in the program
that might have gone unnoticed.
During program testing, the following details should be checked; The reports generated by the system.
The files maintained in connection to the system’s information requirements. The input to the system.
The processing tasks.
The controls incorporated within the system.

Note. The testing process is a continuous process, and it ends only when the Programmer & the other
personnel involved are satisfied that when operational, the program will meet the objectives and the
growing demands of the organization.

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Types of program errors
There are 5 main types of errors that can be encountered when testing a program. These are: Syntax
errors.
Run-time (Execution) errors.
Logical (arithmetic) errors. Semantic errors.
Lexicon errors.

Syntax errors
Every programming language has a well-defined set of rules concerning formal spellings,
punctuations, naming of variables, etc. The instructions are accepted only in a specified form
& and must be obeyed by the programmer.

Syntax errors are therefore, programming errors/mistakes that occur if the grammatical rules of a
particular language are not used correctly.

Examples:

Punctuation mistakes, i.e., if the programmer does not use the right punctuations & spaces needed by
the translator program, e.g., omitting a comma or a semicolon.
Improper naming of variables.
Wrong spellings of user defined and reserved words.

Reserved words are those words that have a special meaning to the programming language, and
should not be used by the programmer for anything else.

Syntax errors are committed by the programmer when developing, or transcribing the program, and
can be detected by the language translators, such as the Compiler as it attempts to translate a program.
Such errors must be corrected by the programmer before the program runs.

Logical (arithmetic) errors.

These are errors in the program logic.

Logical errors relate to the logic of processing followed in the program to get the desired results. E.g.,
they may occur as a result of misuse of logical operators.

Logical errors cannot be detected by the translator. The programmer will detect them when the
program results are produced.

The program will run, but give the wrong output or stop during execution.

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Run-time (Execution) errors.

These errors occur during program execution.

Run-time (execution) errors occur when the programmer introduces new features in the program,
which are not part of the translator’s standards.

For example; they may occur if:

The computer is asked to divide a number by zero.

The number generated as a result of an instruction is too large to fit in a memory location. When you
raise a number to a very big power that cannot be accommodated in the Register’s structure of the
computer.
In case of a closed loop in the program, leading to a set of instructions being executed repetitively for
a long time.
Execution errors are not detected by the translator programs, but are detected by the computer during
execution. Sometimes, execution errors may lead to premature end of a program.

To detect and eliminate Execution errors, a test run should be performed on the program after it has
been translated.

Semantic errors.

These are meaning errors. They occur when the programmer develops statements, which are not
projecting towards the desired goal. Such statements will create deviations from the desired
objectives.

Semantic errors are not detected by the computer. The programmer detects them when the program
results are produced.

Example;

IF GP>=1500 OR 2200 THEN TAX: = GP - (GP * 13%)

IF GP>=1500 AND GP<= 2200 THEN TAX: = GP - (GP * 13%)

In the 1st statement, if the selection is between 1500 & 2200, the computer will pick only 1500
& 2200, and the other values will not be touched.

In the 2nd statement, the computer will be able to pick all the values between 1500 & 2200 because of
the ‘AND’ operator.
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Lexicon errors.
These are the errors, which occur as a result of misusing Reserved words (words reserved for a
particular language).

Revision Questions.
State the three types of errors that can be experienced in program testing, and how each can be
detected.
Syntax errors can be detected by the help of translators while logical errors are detected differently.
Explain FIVE methods which can be used to detect Logical errors.

DEBUGGING:

The term Bug is used to refer to an error in a computer program.

Most programming errors often remain undetected until an attempt is made to translate a program.

The most common errors include:-

Improperly declared Constants and Variables.
A reference to undeclared variable. Incorrect punctuation.

Debugging is therefore, the process of detecting, locating & correcting (removing, eliminating) all
errors (mistakes or bugs) that may exist in a computer program.

TYPES OF TESTING (Methods of error detection)

For the program to be assumed as correct, several testing needs to be conducted by the programmer to
ascertain/establish their validity.
There are several methods of testing a program for errors. These include: Dry running (Desk
checking).
Translator system checking.
Functional testing. Use of Test data.
Use of debugging utilities. Diagnostic procedures.
System test with actual data.

Dry Running (Desk checking):

Dry running is a method of checking a program for errors by making the corrections on a paper before
entering it in the program editor.

It involves going through the program while still on paper verifying & validating its possible results.
If the final results agree with the original test data used, the programmer can then type the program into
the computer and translate it.

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Dry running helps the programmer to identify the program instructions, detect the most obvious syntax
and logical errors, & the possible output.
Dry running is much faster. This is because; it involves the use of human brain as the processor,
which has got a well inbuilt common sense.

Translator system checking:

This is a type of testing, which involves the computer & the translator programs.

After entering the program, it is checked using a translator to detect any syntax errors. The translator
can be a Compiler or an Interpreter, which goes through the set of instructions & produces a list of
errors, or a program/statement listing which is free from errors.

Functional testing (White-box testing):

This type of testing is based upon examining the internal structure of a program & selecting test data,
which give rise to the alternative cases of control flow.

Use of Test data.

The accuracy of a program can be tested by inputting a set of values referred to as Test data.
The test data is designed to produce predictable output. There are 2 types of test data;
Real data (live data): - test data obtained from the real problem environment (practical applications).

Dummy data: - assumed test data.

The programmer invents simple test data, which he/she uses to carry out trial runs of the new program.
At each run, the programmer enters various data variations including data with
errors to test how the system will behave. For example, if the input required is of numeric type, the
programmer may enter alphabetic characters. The programmer will then compare the output produced
with the predicted (actual) output.

Notes.

Where possible, the program should be tested using the same test data that was used for desk
checking. More strict/rigid tests should be applied on the program in order to test the program to its
limits.

Only Logical errors & Semantic errors can be corrected by the programmer using test data.
A good program should not crash due to incorrect data entry but should inform the user about the
irregularity and request for the correct data to be entered.
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Use of debugging utilities.

After the program has been entered in the program editor, debugging utilities which are built in the
computer can be run during translation to detect any syntax errors in the program.
The errors are corrected and the debugging process is repeated again to find out more errors, before
the program is executed.

Diagnostic procedures.

For complex programs, diagnostic procedures, such as Trace routines, may be used to find logical
errors.
A Trace prints out the results at each processing step to enable errors to be detected quickly.

System Test with actual data.

This is whereby the new program is run in parallel with the existing system for a short time so that
results can be compared and adjustments made. In such cases, the system test is made using actual
data.

Review Questions.

Differentiate between Testing and Debugging. What is Dry running?

Implementation and Maintenance.

IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation refers to the actual delivery, installation and putting of the new program into use.

The program is put into use after it is fully tested, well documented, and after training the staff who will
be involved in the running of the new program.

Structured Walk Through:

It is an organized style of evaluating/reviewing a program by a team of other programmers, which then

reports to the programming team.

REVIEW AND MAINTENANCE.

Once the program becomes operational, it should be maintained throughout its life, i.e., new routines
should be added, obsolete routines removed, & the existing routines adjusted so that the program may
adapt to enhanced functional environments.

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
The main objective of maintenance is to keep the system functioning at an acceptable level. Program
maintenance mainly involves: -

Correcting errors that may be encountered after the program has been implemented or exposed to
extensive use.
Changing procedures.
Hardware and software maintenance.
Changing parameters and algorithms used to develop the original programs. Making any
adjustments as new technology comes.

Note. Program maintenance runs parallel to the maintenance of the program documentation, i.e., any
time maintenance is carried out on the program, the documentation should also be updated to convey
the right image of the system.

Program documentation.

After writing, testing, and debugging a program, it must be documented. In other words, the
programmer should describe all what he was doing during the program development stages.

Program documentation is the writing of supportive materials explaining how the program can be
used by users, installed by operators, or modified by other programmers.

Note. All the program development activities (i.e., from the initial stage up to the complete program)
should be documented/recorded in order to assist in the development of the program, future
modification of the program, general maintenance, machine & software conversion at a later date, and
program changeover.

Documentation can either be; Internal or External.

Internal documentation is the writing of non-executable lines (comments) in the source program that
help other programmers to understand the code statements.

External documentation refers to reference materials such as user manuals printed as booklets.

Types of program documentation.

There are 3 target groups for any type of documentation:

User-oriented documentation.
This enables the user to learn how to use the program as quickly as possible, and with little help from

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
the program developer.
Operator-oriented documentation:
This is meant for computer operators such as the technical staff. It is used to help them install &
maintain the program.

Programmer-oriented documentation:
This is a detailed documentation written for skilled programmers. It provides the necessary technical
information to help in future modification of the program.

Some documents used in program documentation.

User guide/ manual.

This is a manual provided for an end-user to enable him/her use or operate the program with minimal
or no guidance.
A User guide is used in user-oriented documentation.

Reference guide.
It is used by someone who already knows how to use the program but needs to be reminded about a
particular point or obtain more detailed information about a particular feature.

Quick Reference guide.

This could be a single sheet or card small enough to fit into a pocket. It is used by the user to get help
for the common tasks carried out within the program.

Technical manuals.
They are intended for System analysts & Programmers. They assist in maintaining & modifying the
program design and code.

Contents in a program document.

Documentation includes: Title of the program.
Function of the program. Language used.
Hardware & Software required to support the processing of the system.
File specifications (details of the data structures used, & details of how data files are to be organized,
accessed, and kept secure).
Limitations of the program.
Format of the input & the output expected.
Design of the program using the design tools (i.e., detailed algorithms & procedures used). A listing
of the Source program and the program flowcharts.
A carefully devised set of Test data, and a table of expected results. Detailed instructions on how to run
the program.
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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
Review Questions.
What is program designing?
(a). Define program documentation.
(b). What does a program documentation contain?
Briefly explain how each of the following documents are useful in programming? User manual /
guide.
Reference guide. Quick reference guide.
Program documentation is different from Implementation. Explain. Outline and briefly explain the
stages involved in program development.

DEVELOPING OF ALGORITHMS
After carefully analyzing the requirements specification, the programmer usually comes up with the
algorithm.

Definition of an Algorithm:
An Algorithm is a limited number of logical steps that a program follows in order to solve a problem.

A step-by-step (a set of) instructions which when followed will produce a solution to a given problem.

Algorithms take little or no account of the programming language.

They must be precise/ accurate, unambiguous/clear and should guarantee a solution.

Program design Tools.

Algorithms can be illustrated using the following tools:

Pseudocodes. Flowcharts.
Decision Tables. Decision Trees.

Note. For any given problem, the programmer must choose which algorithm (method) is best suited
to solve it.

PSEUDOCODES.

A pseudocode is a method of documenting a program logic in which English-like statements are used
to describe the processing steps.

These are structured English-like phrases that indicate the program steps to be followed to solve a
given problem.

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The term “Code” usually refers to a computer program. This implies that, some of the words used in a
pseudocode may be drawn from a certain programming language and then mixed with English to
form structured statements that are easily understood by non-programmers, and also make a lot of
sense to programmers.
However, pseudocodes are not executable by a computer.

Guidelines for designing a good pseudocode.

The statements must be short, clear and readable.
The statements must not have more than one meaning (i.e., should not be ambiguous). The
pseudocode lines should be clearly outlined and indented.
A pseudocode must have a Begin and an end.
i.e., a pseudocode should show clearly the start and stop of executable statements and the control
structures.
The input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated using keywords such as
PRINT, READ, INPUT, etc.

Example 1:
Write a pseudocode that can be used to prompt the user to enter two numbers, calculate the sum and
average of the two numbers and then display the output on the screen.

START
PRINT “Enter two numbers” INPUT X, Y
Sum = X + Y
Average = Sum/2 PRINT Sum

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 PRINT Average
STOP
Example 2:
Write a structured algorithm that would prompt the user to enter the Length and Width of a rectangle,
calculate the Area and Perimeter, then display the result.

Solution

Step 1: Draw the rectangle of Length (L) and Width (W).

Step 2: Write down the Pseudocode.
START
PRINT “Enter Length and Width” READ L, W
Area = L * W Perimeter = 2 (L + W) PRINT Area
PRINT Perimeter
STOP
Example 3:
Write a pseudocode that can be used to calculate the Diameter, Circumference and Area of a circle and
then display the output on the screen.

START
Set π to 3.14
Prompt the user for the Radius (R) Store the radius in a variable (R) Set Diameter to 2 *
Radius
Set Circumference to π * 2 * Radius Set Area to π * Sqr (Radius)
PRINT Diameter PRINT Circumference PRINT Area
STOP

Example 4:

Write a pseudocode for a program that would be used to solve equation: E = MC2.

START
Enter values from M to C E = M * C * C
Display E
STOP
It is important to use program control structures when writing Pseudocodes. The most common
constructs are:

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 Looping (Repetition / Iteration) – used where instructions are to be repeated under certain conditions.
Selection – used when choosing a specified group of instructions for execution. The group chosen
depends on certain conditions being satisfied.

Example 5:
Write a pseudocode for a program that can be used to classify people according to age. If a person is more
than 20 years; output “Adult” else output “Young person”.

START
PRINT “Enter the Age” INPUT Age
IF Age > 20 THEN
PRINT “Adult”
ELSE
PRINT “Young person”
STOP

Note. Pseudocodes make an algorithm easier to understand. This is because; the algorithm can be
read from top to bottom without the need for jumping backwards or forwards to follow the logic of the
algorithm as in flowcharts.

FLOWCHARTS.
A Flowchart is a diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a program’s algorithm.
It is a chart that demonstrates the logical sequence of events that must be performed to solve a
problem.
Types of Flowcharts.

There are 2 common types of Flowcharts: System flowchart.

A System flowchart is a graphical model that illustrates each basic step of a data
processing system.
It illustrates (in summary) the sequence of events in a system, showing the department or function
responsible for each event.

Program flowchart.
This is a diagram that describes, in sequence, all the operations required to process data in a computer
program.

A program flowchart graphically represents the types of instructions contained in a computer program
as well as their sequence & logic.

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 PROGRAM FLOWCHARTS.
A Flowchart is constructed using a set of special shapes (or symbols) that have specific meaning.
Symbols are used to represent operations, or data flow on a flowchart.
Each symbol contains information (short text) that describes what must be done at that point.
The symbols are joined by arrows to obtain a complete Flowchart. The arrows show the order in
which the instruction must be executed.

SYMBOLS USED IN PROGRAM FLOWCHARTS.

Below is a standard set of symbols used to draw program flowcharts as created by American National
Standard Institute (ANSI).

Terminal symbol.

Ellipse (Oval in shape)

It is used to indicate the point at which a flowchart, a process or an algorithm begins & ends.

All Flowcharts must have a START & STOP symbol. The START/BEGIN symbol is the first
symbol of a flowchart, & identifies the point at which the analysis of the flowchart should begin. The
STOP/END symbol is the last symbol of a flowchart, & indicates the end of the flowchart.

The words Begin & End (or Start & Stop) should be inserted in the Terminal symbol.

Input or Output symbol.

(Parallelogram)

- It is used to identify/specify an input operation or output operation. For example;

Input operation Output operation

Note. The words mostly associated with I/O operations are READ & PRINT. READ describes
the entry of computer data, while PRINT relates to the printed output of information.

Process symbol.
(Rectangle)

- Process symbol is used to indicate that a processing or data transformation is taking place.
The information placed within the process symbol may be an algebraic formula or a
sentence to describe processing.
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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 Processing defined as a Formula Processing defined as a Sentence

Decision symbol.

NO (Rhombus)

YES

- It is used to indicate/ specify a condition or to show the decision to be made. There are 2 main
components of a Decision symbol:

A question asked within the Decision symbol, that indicates the comparison / logical operation.
The results of the comparison (which are given in terms of YES or NO).
The arrows labeled YES or NO lead to the required action corresponding to the answer to the
question.

Flow lines.

Flow lines with arrowheads are used to indicate the direction of processing of the program logic, i.e.,
they show the order in which the instructions are to be executed.

The normal flow of a flowchart is from Top to Bottom, and Left to Right. Note. Flow lines should
never cross each other.
Connector symbol.

Sometimes, a flowchart becomes too long to fit in a single page, such that the flow lines start
crisscrossing at many places causing confusion & also making the flowchart difficult to
understand.
The Connector symbol is used as a connecting point for arrows coming from different directions.
A Connector symbol is represented by a Circle, and a letter or digit is placed within the circle to
indicate the link.
Note. Connectors do not represent any operation. They are used to connect two parts of a
flowchart, indicating that the flow of data is not broken.

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
General guidelines for drawing a program flowchart.

A flowchart should have only one entry/starting point and one exit point (i.e., ensure that the flowchart
has a logical start and finish).
The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. Use the correct symbol at each stage in the
flowchart.
The flowchart should not be open to more than one interpretation.
Avoid overlapping the lines used to show the flow of logic as this can create confusion in the
flowchart.
Make comparison instructions simple, i.e., capable of YES/NO answers. The logical flow should be
clearly shown using arrows.
Note. A flowchart should flow from the Top to Bottom of a page, and from the Left to the Right.
Where necessary, use Connectors to reduce the number of flow lines.

Connectors are helpful when a flowchart is several pages long, and where several loops are
needed in the logic of the flowchart.

Notes.
A flowchart must have a Start and an end.

A flowchart is useful when the algorithm is short & the flowchart can fit conveniently on a single page.
If the flowchart is too large, it is recommended to use Pseudocodes for long & complicated program
Advantages of using Flowcharts.

The following are the benefits of Flowcharts: Quicker understanding of relationships.

They assist programmers to understand procedures more quickly.
A programmer can represent a lengthy procedure more easily with the help of a flowchart than
describing it by means of written notes.

Effective synthesis.

Flowcharts may be used as working models in the design of new programs and systems.

Proper program documentation.

Program flowcharts serve as good program documentation, which is needed for the following
reasons:

If programs are modified in future, the flowcharts will direct the programmer on what was originally

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done.
When staff changes occur, the flowcharts may help new employees understand the existing
programs.
Flowcharts assist in program conversion when new hardware/software are acquired. Effective
coding.
Program flowcharts act as a guide during the program preparation stage. Instructions coded in a
programming language may be checked against the flowchart to ensure that no steps are
omitted.

Orderly debugging and testing of programs.

Flowcharts help in detecting, locating and removing mistakes.

The programmer can refer to the flowchart as he/she re-checks the coding steps, & the logic of
the written instructions.

Efficient program maintenance.

Flowcharts facilitate the maintenance of operating programs. They help the programmer to
concentrate on the part of the information flow which is to be modified.

Limitations of using Flowcharts.

Flowcharts are complex, clumsy & become unclear, especially when the program logic is complex.

If changes are to be made, the flowchart may require complete re-drawing.

Reproduction of flowcharts is usually a problem, since the flowchart symbols cannot be typed. No
uniform practice is followed for drawing flowcharts as it is used as an aid to the program.
Sometimes, it becomes difficult to establish the link between various conditions, and the actions to be
taken upon a particular condition.

Revision Exercise.

Define the following: Algorithm.

Pseudocode. Flowchart.
(a). State the various types of flowcharts.
(b). Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of flowcharts.

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PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem Identification (problem recognition).
Write a program which:

Requests the user to enter a temperature in oC. Calculates the corresponding temperature in oF.
Outputs the given temperature and the converted value.

Problem definition & Problem Analysis.

Determine the general requirements, i.e., the main inputs to the program, the main outputs from the
program, & also the kind of files which may be needed.

Find out how to convert the given temperature. If the given temperature is in oC, then convert it to oF.
F = 32 + (9 oC/5)
The Keyboard will be used to enter the Centigrade temperature, and display the output on the Screen.

Design the program.

Develop an Algorithm (a method) for solving the problem.
An Algorithm is a set of instructions which when followed will produce a solution to a given
problem.

Write the instructions in such a way that they can be easily converted into a form which the computer
can follow.

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