APSD INNOVATION INFOTECH PVT.

LTD

2024-2025

Summer Training Report

Submitted By:-

Submitted To:-
 Table of Content
1. Basic Electronics
2. C & C++
3. PCB DESGINING
4. EMBEDDED SYSTEM
5. IOT
6. ROBOTICS
7. PLC
 Basic Electronics
 Resistance
 Diode
 Capacitor
 Transistor
 IC’S

 Resistance
Resistance:- A passive electrical component with two
terminals that are used for either Limiting or regulating the
flow of electric current in electrical circuits.

The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow

and to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the
circuit. It is made of copper wires are coiled around a
ceramic rod and the outer part of the resistor is coated
with an insulating paint.

Resistance
 Types of Resistors
Resistors are available in different shapes and sizes. Common
types that are available are through-hole and surface mount. A
resistor might be static, standard resistor, special, or a pack of
variable resistors.

There are two basic types of resistors as follows:

 Linear resistor
 Non-linear resistor
Types image of Resistors:-
1.What is Colour Coding of Resistors?
Resistors may not display the value outside but their resistance can be
calculated through their colour pattern PTH (plated-through-hole) resistors
use a colour-coding system (which really adds some flair to circuits), and
SMD (surface-mount-device)resistors have their own value-marking
system.
Applications of Resistor
Following are the applications of resistors:

Wire wound resistors find applications

where balanced current control, high
sensitivity, and accurate measurement
are required like in shunt with ampere
meter.
Photoresistors find application in flame
detectors, burglar alarms,in photogra --
-phic devices, etc.
Resistors are used for controlling
temperature and voltmeter.
Resistors are used in digital multi-meter,
amplifiers, telecommunication, and
oscillators.
They are also used in modulators,
demodulators, and transmitters.
 CAPACITOR
Capacitors are passive components, similar to a resistor.
Charges are usually stored in the form of an "electrical
field" in a capacitor. There are different types of
capacitors such as ceramic capacitors, paper capacitors,
etc.
 Many electrical and electronic circuits rely heavily on
these.
 A capacitor is made up of two parallel metal plates that
are not connected to one another.
 The capacitor's two plates are separated by a non-
conducting medium (insulating medium), which is called
a dielectric.

Capacitor Symbol
Classification of Capacitors:-
Capacitors come in a variety of sizes and shapes, ranging
from very small capacitors used in resonant circuits to
enormous capacitors needed to stabilize HVDC (High
Voltage Direct Current Transmission) lines. Capacitors
are mainly divided into Fixed and Variable capacitors
Some common types of capacitors are:

 Ceramic capacitors
 Silver mica, glass, silicon, air-gap, and vacuum
capacitors
 Film and paper capacitors
 Double-layer capacitors
 Aluminum, tantalum, and niobium electrolytic
capacitors
 Polymer capacitors
 Hybrid capacitors
 Pseudo capacitors
The different types of capacitors based on their structure are
as follows:

Fixed Capacitors:- A fixed capacitor stores a specific amount

of electric charge (capacitance) that cannot be changed at any time.
Their values are mostly set during the production process. In electric
appliances or gadgets, a fixed capacitor helps in maintaining a steady
charge and energy output.
Variable Capacitors:- A variable capacitor is one that
can have its capacitance changed. The capacitance changes
as the relative effective area between the pole metal plates or
the distance between the plates changes. In radio receiving
circuits, it is commonly used as a tuning capacitor. It's also
used in a variety of circuits, including tuning and
amplification, frequency selective oscillation, and others.

Capacitors are also classified based on their

polarisation:
Polarized Capacitors
A polarized capacitor, also known as an electrolytic
capacitor, is a crucial component in an electrical circuit.
To produce a high capacitive density, these capacitors are
utilized.
Unpolarized Capacitors
Unpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarised
capacitors because they can be utilized in pure AC circuits
and are not damaged by reverse voltage. Because they
don't have positive and negative ends, they can also be
used in DC circuits. The unpolarized capacitor has a high
frequency and a low leakage current.
Capacitior Value :-
 DIODE
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to
also transform AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and
germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even
though they transmit current in a single direction, the way with
which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and
each type has its own applications.

Symbol of Diode

Diode Construction
Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and

germanium. When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage, the
diode is said to be forward-biased, and it
conducts readily with a relatively low-
voltage drop. Likewise, when the cathode
voltage is more positive than the anode, the
diode is said to be reverse-biased. The
arrow in the diode symbol represents the
direction of conventional current flow when
the diode conducts.

This article lets you understand in detail about

various types of diodes.
Types of Diodes
1. Light Emitting Diode
2. Laser diode
3. Avalanche diode
4. Zener diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PN junction diode
Types Of Diode
Characteristics of Diode
The following are the characteristics of the
diode:
 Forward-biased diode
 Reverse-biased diode
 Zero biased diode
Forward-biased Diode
There is a small drop of voltage across the diode when the diode is
forward-biased and the current is conducting. For silicon diodes, the
forward voltage is 690mV and for germanium, 300mV is the forward
voltage. The potential energy across the p-type material is positive and
across the n-type material, the potential energy is negative.

Reverse-biased Diode
A diode is said to be reverse-biased when the battery’s voltage is
dropped completely. For silicon diodes, the reverse current is -20μA and
for germanium, -50μA is the reverse current. The potential energy
across the p-type material is negative and across the n-type material, the
potential energy is positive.

Zero-biased Diode
When the diode is zero-biased, the voltage potential across the
diode is zero.
Diode Applications
Following are the applications and uses of the diode:
 Diodes as a rectifier
 Diodes in the clipping circuit
 Diodes in clamping circuits
 Diodes in logical gates
 Diodes in reverse current protection
 Transistors
A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that
can be used to conduct and insulate electric current
or voltage. A transistor basically acts as a switch
and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a
transistor is a miniature device that is used to control
or regulate the flow of electronic signals.
Transistors are one of the key components in most of the
electronic devices that are present today. Developed in the
year 1947 by three American physicists, John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain and William Shockley, the transistor is
considered one of the most important inventions in the
history of science.
Types of Transistors
There are mainly two types of transistors, based on how
they are used in a circuit.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter and
collector. A very small current flowing between the base
and emitter can control a larger flow of current between
the collector and emitter terminal.
Furthermore, there are two types of BJT, and they include:
 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-
type material is introduced or placed between two p-
type materials. In such a configuration, the device will
control the flow of current. PNP transistor consists of
2 crystal diodes which are connected in series. The
right side and left side of the diodes are known as the
collector-base diode and emitter-base diode,
respectively.
 N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one
p-type material that is present between two n-type
materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify
weak signals to strong signals. In an NPN transistor,
the electrons move from the emitter to the collector
region, resulting in the formation of current in the
transistor. This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
 There are three types of configuration, which are
common base (CB), common collector (CC) and
common emitter (CE).
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
For FET, the three terminals are Gate, Source and Drain. The
voltage at the gate terminal can control a current between the
source and the drain. FET is a unipolar transistor in which N-
channel FET or P-channel FET are used for conduction. The main
applications of FETs are in low noise amplifiers, buffer amplifiers
and analogue switches.
Advantages of Transistor
 Lower cost and smaller in size.
 Smaller mechanical sensitivity.
 Low operating voltage.
 Extremely long life.
 No power consumption.
 Fast switching.
 Better efficiency circuits can be developed.
 Used to develop a single integrated circuit.
Limitations of Transistors
Transistors have a few limitations, and they are
as follows:
 Transistors lack higher electron mobility.
 Transistors can be easily damaged when
electrical and thermal events arise. For
example, electrostatic discharge in
handling.
 Transistors are affected by cosmic rays and
radiation.
 Integrated Circuit (IC)
Integrated circuits are made up of several components such
as R, C, L, diodes and transistors. They are built on a small
single block or chip of a semiconductor known as an
integrated circuit (IC). All of them work together to perform a
particular task. The IC is easily breakable, so to be attached
to a circuit board, it is often housed in a plastic package with
metal pins.

Integrated Circuit Design

An integrated circuit is created using certain logic methods and
circuit layouts. The two categories of IC design are as follows:

 Analog Design
 Digital Design
 Mixed Design

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
 C & C++

History of C Language:-

History of C language is interesting to know.

Here we are going to discuss a brief history of the c
language.
C programming language was developed in
1972 by Dennis Ritchie at bell laboratories of AT&T
(American Telephone & Telegraph), located in the
U.S.A.
Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of the c
language.
It was developed to overcome the problems of
previous languages such as B, BCPL, etc.
Initially, C language was developed to be used
in UNIX operating system. It inherits many
features of previous languages such as B and
BCPL.
Let's see the programming languages that were
developed before C language.
How to install C
There are many compilers available for c and
c++. You need to download any one. Here,
we are going to use Turbo C++. It will work
for both C and C++. To install the Turbo C
software, you need to follow following steps.
1. Download Turbo C++
2. Create turboc directory inside c drive
and extract the tc3.zip inside c:\turboc
3. Double click on install.exe file
4. Click on the tc application file located
inside c:\TC\BIN to write the c program
1) Download Turbo C++ software
You can download turbo c++ from many
sites. download Turbo c++
2) Create turboc directory in c drive and extract the
tc3.zip
Now, you need to create a new directory
turboc inside the c: drive. Now extract the
tc3.zip file in c:\truboc directory.
3) Double click on the install.exe file and follow steps
 C if else Statement:-
The if-else statement in C is used to perform the
operations based on some specific condition. The
operations specified in if block are executed if and
only if the given condition is true.
There are the following variants of if statement in C
language.
o If statement
o If-else statement
o If else-if ladder
o Nested if

If Statement:-

1.#include<stdio.h>
2.int main(){
3.int number=0;
4.printf("Enter a number:")
;
5.scanf("%d",&number);
6.if(number%2==0){
7.printf("%d is even numbe
r",number);
8.}
9.return 0;
10. }

If-else Statement:-
1.

#include<stdio.h>
2.int main(){
3.int number=0;
4.printf("enter a number:");
5.scanf("%d",&number);
6.if(number%2==0){
7.printf("%d is even number",number);
8.}
9.else{
10. printf("%d is odd number",number);
11. }
12. return 0;
13. }
 C Program to print "hello" without
semicolon:-

Using if statement
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. if(printf("hello world")){}
5. return 0;
6. }

Using switch statement

1.#include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3.{
4.switch(printf("hello world")){}
5.return 0;
6.}

Using while loop

1.#include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3.{
4. while(!printf("hello world")){}
5.return 0;
6.}
 Prime Number program in C:-
1.#include<stdio.h>
2.int main(){
3.int n,i,m=0,flag=0;
4.printf("Enter the number to check prime:");
5.scanf("%d",&n);
6.m=n/2;
7.for(i=2;i<=m;i++)
8.{
9.if(n%i==0)
10. {
11. printf("Number is not prime");
12. flag=1;
13. break;
14. }
15. }
16. if(flag==0)
17. printf("Number is prime");
18. return 0;
19. }

OUTPUT:-
Enter the number to check prime:56
Number is not prime

Enter the number to check prime:23

Number is prime

Sum of digits program in C:-

1.#include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3.{
4.int n,sum=0,m;
5.printf("Enter a number:");
6.scanf("%d",&n);
7.while(n>0)
8.{
9.m=n%10;
10. sum=sum+m;
11. n=n/10;
12. }
13. printf("Sum is=%d",sum);
14. return 0;
15. }

OUTPUT:-
Enter a number:654
Sum is=15

Enter a number:123
Sum is=6
 C Program to reverse number:-

1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int n, reverse=0, rem;
5. printf("Enter a number: ");
6. scanf("%d", &n);
7. while(n!=0)
8. {
9. rem=n%10;
10. reverse=reverse*10+rem;
11. n/=10;
12. }
13. printf("Reversed Number: %d",reverse);

14. return 0;
15. }

OUTPUT:-

Enter a number: 123

Reversed Number: 321
 Factorial Program in C:-

1.#include<stdio.h>
2.int main()
3.{
4. int i,fact=1,number;
5. printf("Enter a number: ");
6. scanf("%d",&number);
7. for(i=1;i<=number;i++){
8. fact=fact*i;
9. }
10. printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);
11. return 0;
12. }

OUTPUT:-

Enter a number: 5
Factorial of 5 is: 120
 Factorial Program in C:-

1.#include<stdio.h>
2.int main()
3.{
4. int i,fact=1,number;
5. printf("Enter a number: ");
6. scanf("%d",&number);
7. for(i=1;i<=number;i++){
8. fact=fact*i;
9. }
10. printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);
11. return 0;
12. }

OUTPUT:-
Enter a number: 5
Factorial of 5 is: 120
 Count the number of digits in C:-

1.#include <stdio.h>
2.int main()
3.{
4. int n; // variable declaration
5. int count=0; // variable declaration
6. printf("Enter a number");
7. scanf("%d",&n);
8. while(n!=0)
9. {
10. n=n/10;
11. count++;
12. }
13.
14. printf("\nThe number of digits in an integer is
: %d",count);
15. return 0;
16. }
 PCB DESGINING
Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are the boards that are used as
the base in most electronics – both as a physical support
piece and as the wiring area for the surface-mounted and
socketed components. PCBs are most commonly made out
of fiberglass, composite epoxy, or another composite
material.
 The different types of PCBs available are
 Single-Sided PCBs
 Double-Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Single Side PCB’s

A single-sided PCB is the most common type of

printed circuit board. It has a single conductive
copper layer above the substrate. The electrical
components are soldered or placed on one side of
the board, and the entire etched circuit is visible on
the other. Since these boards only have one
conducting layer, the conductive paths cannot
intersect or overlap and hence take up a lot of
space.
 Double-Sided
PCBs

A thin layer of conducting material, such as

copper, is added to both the top and bottom
sides of the board in a double-sided PCB.
Holes in the circuit board allow metal parts to
be connected from one side to the other.
These PCBs connect the circuits on either
side using one of two mounting methods,
through-hole technology or surface mount
technology. Through-hole technology entails
installing lead components into pre-drilled
holes on the circuit board, which are then
soldered to pads on opposite sides. Surface
mount technology entails the precise
placement of electrical components on the
surface of circuit boards.
 Multi-Layer PCBs

Multilayer PCBs have more than two copper layers. In

general, any board featuring at least three conductive
layers is included in this category. Multilayer PCBs are
designed in a ‘sandwich’ fashion, with several double-
sided conductive layers divided by an equal number of
insulating material sheets. All of these must be bonded
and laminated together under high pressures and
temperatures to ensure that no air gaps exist and that
the final PCB assembly is properly stable. Multilayer PCBs
have more than two copper layers. In general, any board
featuring at least three conductive layers is included in
this category. Multilayer PCBs are designed in a
‘sandwich’ fashion, with several double-sided conductive
layers divided by an equal number of insulating material
sheets. All of these must be bonded and laminated
together under high pressures and temperatures to
ensure that no air gaps exist and that the final PCB
assembly is properly stable.

Rigid PCBs
A rigid PCB is a circuit board that cannot be
twisted or folded. The board’s base material is a
rigid substrate, which gives the board rigidity and
strength. They are composed of multiple layers
including a substrate layer, a copper layer, a solder
mask layer, and a silk screen layer which are
adhered together with adhesive and heat. Although
some circuit boards are either single-sided, double-
sided, or multi-layered, rigid PCBs may be any of
these depending on the needs.
Rigid PCBs are used in GPS equipment, computer,
laptops, tablets, mobile phones, X-rays, heart
monitors, CAT scans, MRI systems, temperature
sensors, control tower instrumentation, etc.
 Flex PCBs

A flexible printed circuit board is made up of many

printed circuits and components that are arranged
on a flexible substrate. Flexible PCBs are
commonly made from polyamide, PEEK (Polyether
ether ketone), or a transparent conductive
polyester film. Flex circuit boards, flex PCBs, flex
circuits, and versatile printed circuits are other
names for these circuit boards. These printed
circuit boards are made using the same
components as rigid printed circuit boards. The
main distinction is that the board is designed to
flex to the desired form throughout the
application. These PCBs are available in single-
sided, double-sided, and multilayer configurations.
This contributes to a reduction in the complexity of
the unit assembly.
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

A Rigid-Flex PCB is a hybrid circuit board that

combines elements from both flexible and
rigid circuit boards, resulting in a board that
can be folded or continuously flexed and is
typically shaped into a flexed shape or curve
during the manufacturing process. The
flexible portion of the board is typically used
for interconnections between rigid boards,
allowing for narrower conductor lines that
take up less room, resulting in smaller
boards. Using flexible PCBs for
interconnections often removes the need for
connectors, which are bulky and
cumbersome, making rigid-flex printed circuit
boards much lighter.
 PCB DESGINING
 Using Proteus software & Easy eda.
 New Project
 Create a Schematic
 Create a PCB Layout
 Create a 2d & 3d Diagram
5 Volt Power Supply
Schematic Diagram:-
PCB Layout:-

3d view:-
 IR SENSOR
Schematic View:-

PCB Layout:-
2D & 3D Diagram:-
 EMBEDDED SYSTEM
An Embedded System is a system that has
software embedded into computer-hardware,
which makes a system dedicated for a variety of
application or specific part of an application or
product or part of a larger system.
An embedded system can be a small independent
system or a large combinational system. It is a
microcontroller-based control system used to
perform a specific task of operation.
An embedded system is a combination of three major
components:

o Hardware: Hardware is physically used component

that is physically connected with an embedded
system. It comprises of microcontroller based
integrated circuit, power supply, LCD display etc.
o Application software: Application software allows
the user to perform varieties of application to be run
on an embedded system by changing the code
installed in an embedded system.
o Real Time Operating system (RTOS): RTOS
supervises the way an embedded system work. It act
as an interface between hardware and application
software .
 Arduino UNO
Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source)
based on an easy-to-use hardware and software. It
consists of a circuit board, which can be programed
(referred to as a microcontroller) and a ready-made
software called Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), which is used to write
and upload the computer code to the physical
board.
Types of Arduino UNO
 ARDUINO SOFTWARE
Arduino IDE:- The Arduino IDE is an open-source software,
which is used to write and upload code to the Arduino boards. The
IDE application is suitable for different operating systems such
as Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It supports the
programming languages C and C++. Here, IDE stands

for Integrated Development Environment.

Apsd St

Apsd St
 ARDUINO PROJECT
Blinking Led
Components Required:-
 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × LED
 1 × 330Ω Resistor
 2 × Jumper

Procedure:-
Sketch:-Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding
in the Arduino language will control your circuit. Open the new sketch
File by clicking New.

ARDUINO CODE:-
/*
Blink
Turns on an LED on for one second, then off for one second,
repeatedly.
*/

// the setup function runs once when you press reset or power the
board

void setup() { // initialize digital pin 13 as an output.

pinMode(2, OUTPUT);
}

// the loop function runs over and over again forever

void loop() {
digitalWrite(2, HIGH); // turn the LED on (HIGH is the voltage
level)
delay(1000); // wait for a second
digitalWrite(2, LOW); // turn the LED off by making the voltage LOW
delay(1000); // wait for a second
}
 Arduino - Ultrasonic Sensor
The HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor uses SONAR to determine the
distance of an object just like the bats do. It offers excellent non-
contact range detection with high accuracy and stable readings in
an easy-to-use package from 2 cm to 400 cm or 1” to 13 feet.

Components Required:-
o 1 × Breadboard
o 1 × Arduino Uno R3
o 1 × ULTRASONIC Sensor (HC-SR04)
PROCEDURE:-

Arduino Code
const int pingPin = 7; // Trigger Pin of Ultrasonic
Sensor
const int echoPin = 6; // Echo Pin of Ultrasonic Sensor

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Starting Serial Terminal
}

void loop() {
long duration, inches, cm;
pinMode(pingPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(pingPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
 duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);
inches = microsecondsToInches(duration);
cm = microsecondsToCentimeters(duration);
Serial.print(inches);
Serial.print("in, ");
Serial.print(cm);
Serial.print("cm");
Serial.println();
delay(100);
}

long

microsecondsToInches(long microseconds) {
return microseconds / 74 / 2;
}

long microsecondsToCentimeters(long microseconds) {

return microseconds / 29 / 2;
}

Arduino - Servo Motor

A Servo Motor is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft
can be positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo
a coded signal. As long as the coded signal exists on the input line,
the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft.
Components Required:-
 1 × Arduino UNO board
 1 × Servo Motor
 1 × ULN2003 driving IC
 1 × 10 KΩ Resistor

Procedure:-
 Arduino Code

#include <Servo.h>
Servo myservo; // create servo object to
control a servo
int potpin = 0; // analog pin used to connect
the potentiometer
int val; // variable to read the value from
the analog pin

void setup() {
myservo.attach(9); // attaches the servo on
pin 9 to the servo object
}

void loop() {
val = analogRead(potpin);
// reads the value of the potentiometer
(value between 0 and 1023)
val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 180);
// scale it to use it with the servo (value
between 0 and 180)
myservo.write(val); // sets the servo
position according to the scaled value
delay(15);
}
 Arduino LCD Display
The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) is a type of display that uses
the liquid crystals for its operation.

Here, we will accept the serial input from the computer

and upload the sketch to the Arduino. The characters will
be displayed on the LCD.

The library that allows us to control the LCD display is

called Liquid Crystal Library, which is discussed below:

Hardware Required:-
The components required for the project are listed below:

o LCD Screen (Hitachi HD44780 compatible driver

display)
o 1 x 220 Ohm Resistor
o 1 x 10K Ohm Resistor
o Arduino UNO board
o Jump wires
o Pin header required to solder the LCD display pins
o breadboard
 ARDUINO CODE:-
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
// initialize the library with the pins on the
Arduino
board
LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 6, 4, 3, 2);
void setup() {
// Here, 16 and 2 are the columns and row
s of the LCD
lcd.begin(16, 2);
// It prints the message on the LCD.
lcd.print("hello APSD");
// We can modify the message as per our ch
oice.
}
void loop() {
// It sets the cursor to column 0, line 1
// Since counting begins with 0, line 1 is the
second row
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
// print the number of seconds
lcd.print(millis() / 1000);
// Here, millis() is the return type of the time
r in milliseconds
}
 IoT (Internet of Things)
IoT tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of IoT.
Our Internet of Things tutorial is designed for beginners
and professionals.

IoT stands for Internet of Things, which means accessing

and controlling daily usable equipments and devices using
Internet.

Our IoT tutorial includes all topics of IoT such as

introduction, features, advantage and disadvantage,
ecosystem, decision framework, architecture and
domains, biometric, security camera and door unlock
system, devices, etc.

Features of IOT
The most important features of IoT on which it works are
connectivity, analyzing, integrating, active engagement, and
many more. Some of them are listed below:

Connectivity: Connectivity refers to establish a proper

connection between all the things of IoT to IoT platform it may be
server or cloud. After connecting the IoT devices, it needs a high
speed messaging between the devices and cloud to enable
reliable, secure and bi-directional communication.

Analyzing: After connecting all the relevant things, it comes to

real-time analyzing the data collected and use them to build
effective business intelligence. If we have a good insight into data
gathered from all these things, then we call our system has a
smart system.

Integrating: IoT integrating the various models to improve the

user experience as well.

Artificial Intelligence: IoT makes things smart and enhances

life through the use of data. For example, if we have a coffee
machine whose beans have going to end, then the coffee
machine itself order the coffee beans of your choice from the
retailer.

Sensing: The sensor devices used in IoT technologies detect and

measure any change in the environment and report on their
status. IoT technology brings passive networks to active networks.
Without sensors, there could not hold an effective or true IoT
environment.

Active Engagement: IoT makes the connected technology,

product, or services to active engagement between each other.
Endpoint Management: It is important to be the endpoint
management of all the IoT system otherwise, it makes the
complete failure of the system.

IoT Architecture
There is not such a unique or standard consensus on the Internet of
Things (IoT) architecture which is universally defined. The IoT
architecture differs from their functional area and their solutions.
However, the IoT architecture technology mainly consists of four
major components:

Components of IoT Architecture

o Sensors/Devices
o Gateways and Networks
o Cloud/Management Service Layer
 o Application Layer

IOT PROJECTS
IoT project of controlling home light using WiFi Node MCU,
and Relay module

Hardware Requirements
1. Wi-Fi Node MCU ESP8266
2. Standard USB cable to connect Node MCU
3. 4 Channel Relay module (5V)

4. Jumper wires female to female

 5. Home Light (Bulb)
6. Bulb holder
7. Wire
8. AC 220v/120v home appliances or 9v Hi-Walt Battery.

Software requirements:-
1. Arduino software
2. Blynk app

Working principle of this project (Node MCU, Relay Module)

Download the Blynk application from play store and install
it on your device.
 A program written on Arduino IDE to control
the home light using WiFi Node MCU, 4
Chanel Relay Module:
1. #define BLYNK_PRINT Serial
2. #include <ESP8266WiFi.h>
3. #include <BlynkSimpleEsp8266.h>
4.
5. char auth[] = "f839fcfeaf4a47cfb5d0f20771e8xxxx"; // the
auth code that you got on your gmail and Blynk app
6. char ssid[] = "APSD4G"; // username or ssid of your WI-FI
7. char pass[] = "password"; // password of your Wi-Fi
8.
9. void setup()
10. {
11. // Debug console
12. Serial.begin(9600);
13. pinMode(D1,OUTPUT); //extend these to D8 if you are
using a 8 pin relay
14. pinMode(D2,OUTPUT);
15. pinMode(D3,OUTPUT);
16. pinMode(D4,OUTPUT);
17.
18. digitalWrite(D1,HIGH); // Make it low if you want ever
ything to go off
19. digitalWrite(D2,HIGH); // in case of a power cut
20. digitalWrite(D3,HIGH);
21. digitalWrite(D4,HIGH);
22. Blynk.begin(auth, ssid, pass);
23. }
24.
25. void loop()
26. {
27. Blynk.run();
28. }
This project has operated using both Wi-Fi as well as

Mobile data.
 ROBOTICS
Robotics is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI), it
is mainly composed of electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering and computer science
engineering for construction, designing and
application of robots.
Robotics is science of building or designing an
application of robots. The aim of robotics is to
design an efficient robot.
First use of the word "Robotics":
The word robot was firstly introduced to public by
Czech writer Karel Capek in his play Rossum's
Universal Robots (R.U.R), published in 1920. The
play begins with a factory that makes artificial
people known as robots.
The word "Robotics", was coined accidentally by
the Russian-born, American scientist, Issac Asimov
in 1940s .

The three laws of Robotics:

Issac Asimov also proposed his three "Laws of
Robotics", and he later added a "zeroth law"
o Zeroth Law - A robot is not allowed to injured
humanity, or, through inaction it allows humanity to
come to harm.
o First Law - A robot can not injure a human being, or,
through inaction it allows a human being to come to
harm, unless it would violate the higher order law.
o Second Law - A robot should follow the orders given
it by human beings, except when such orders give by
humans would conflict with a higher order law.
o Third Law - A robot is allowed to protect its own
existence as long as such protection would not
conflict with a higher order law.
Components of Robot
Consider the robot structure showing different
components of robots are:

Consider the key components of robotics are:-

o Power Supply - The working power to the robot is
provided by batteries, hydraulic, solar power, or
pneumatic power sources.
o Actuators - convert energy into movement.
Actuators are the energy conversion device used
inside a robot. The major function of actuators is to
o Electric motors (DC/AC)- Motors are
electromechanical component used for converting
electrical energy into its equivalent mechanical
energy. In robots motors are used for providing
rotational movement.
o Sensors - Sensors provide real time information on
the task environment. Robots are equipped with
tactile sensor it imitates the mechanical properties of
touch receptors of human fingerprints and a vision
sensor is used for computing the depth in the
environment.
o Controller - Controller is a part of robot that
coordinates all motion of the mechanical system. It
also receives an input from immediate environment
through various sensors. The heart of robot's
controller is a microprocessor linked with the
input/output and monitoring device. The command
issued by the controller activates the motion control
mechanism, consisting of various controller,
actuators and amplifier.
 PLC: Programmable Logic Controller
PLC is a digital computer control system adapted to control the
robotic devices and other manufacturing processes. It involves a
basic study of Microcontrollers, digital circuits, and
designing skills.

It provides easy, flexible, high-reliability programmable controllers

suitable for simple and harsh environments. It monitors the
state of input devices, takes decisions, and controls the
output devices. The applications include Robotics, water filling
tanks, etc.

PLC ranges from small devices with few Input/Outputs to large

devices with thousand of Input/Outputs.
Why PLC?
PLC was initially created in the United States for the
replacement of relay systems.

The drawbacks of relays that make them unsuitable for

the automotive industry are listed below:

o The machine operation using relays logic was quite

challenging and time-consuming. A change in the
logic of the machine makes the process complicated.
o Relays also fail quickly compared to computer
components.
o It requires more run downtime.
o Relay also consumes plentiful electricity, more
space, and heat.

o A PLC model has a simple appearance. The essential

components of PLC are Input/output (I/O)
modules, co-processor modules,
CPU, and peripheral devices. The CPU (Control
Processing Unit) communicates with the
Input/output. The I/O modules may be present near
or farther away from the CPU. Hence, PLC is not
limited to one building. It includes calculation in the
programming, which is used to calculate different
parameters, such as SPC (Statistical Process
Control).

o But for its operation, we need to program the

Programmable Logic Controller. Most PLCs are
controlled using the applications on the
desktop/laptop. These applications communicate
 with the PLC using the communication medium, such
as Ethernet or the proprietary communication.

Types of PLC:-

There are three types of PLC, which are

shown below:

Modular PLC:- In modular PLC, modular means adding

modules. It allows us to expand the structure of PLC. It is
useful when there are a large number of inputs and
outputs. We can add more input and outputs by adding
the modules in the PLC.
It also has more memory and capability to store
information.

The example includes control processing lines in the

manufacturing industry.
Rack PLC:- The modules in the rack type PLC are
arranged in the rows. The racks are placed inside the
cabinets. The slots in the rack PLC communicate with each
other connected by the standard network or bus.

Compact PLC:- The Input / Output (I/O) modules in the

compact PLC are determined by the manufacturer of that
PLC. It means that the I/O is fixed. But, the compact PLCs
are used for small scale applications.
Architecture of PLC:-
The PLC hardware setup or architecture contains the
hardware and software that is used to perform the control

functions.

PS:-
PS stands for Power Supply. The power supply acts as a power source
for the PLC system. It converts the high voltage into low voltage or
DC, such as 120V AC to 24V DC.

The Linear power supply is less complicated than the other modes
of power supply.

SMPS:-
It stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. SMPS is power conversion and
a high-frequency power conversion device. It converts the voltage
level into the specifically required voltage. SMPS uses solid stat
switches to convert the AC supply into the smooth DC supply.
PLC Cycle:-
The PLC system is often expensive. The incorrect programming or
design of PLC can result in loss of productivity. To save the time to
design of PLC control applications, simulation software like PLC
Logix are recommended. Such software saves time and also
increases the safety associated with the PLC equipment.
Scan cycle of PLC:-
The PLC continuously scans the process because the
inputs are random (can change any time). The scan cycle
is divided into three parts, named Input scan, Output
scan, and program execution.

Input Scan: The PLC solves the logic based on the

specified inputs. The ON/OFF state of the input is saved in
the data table in advance, avoiding sudden changes in
the input. It also makes the process faster.

Program Execution: The control logic keeps the

memory copy of the ladder logic program. It executes
only one instruction at a time using that copy.

Output Scan: It updates the outputs after the scan

process is completed. The values of the program are
temporary. Based on such values, the Output is updated.
After that, it self-checks for any fault and restarts the
process.
PLC Manufacturers:-
The industries that make PLC are listed below:

o Siemens
It is the German multinational company that
manufactures PLC. It is well known and most used
PLC all over the world.
o Rockwell Automation
It is an American company that also took over the
Allen Bradley brand. It is the largest manufacturer of
PLCs and well known in the United States.
o ABB
The ABB is a Swiss multinational company that
provides PLCs within vast industries and applications.
o Omron
It is a Japan-based electronics company.
o GeneralElastic
It is an American based PLC company.
o Delta
It deals with all types of automation machines. It is a
Taiwan- based PLC manufacturer.
o Schneider
The Schneider is a French-based PLCs manufacturer.
o Mitsubishi
It is a Japanese MNC group that manufactures PLC.
o Koyo Electronics Corporation Limited
It manufactures the Direct Logic PLC brand. It is a
Japanese based industry.

PLC Programming:-
PLC programming is a crucial task of implementing and
designing control applications as per the user
requirements. It is the set of instructions that can be in
the graphical or textual form.

Ladder Logic

It is defined as a graphical programming language that

uses symbolic notation for expressing the logical
operations. We can program the PLC on any software
using the ladder logic.

FBD (Function Block Diagram)

The functions in the FBD diagram are described as the set

of elementary blocks. The variables (input and output) in
the Function Block Diagram are connected to blocks by
the lines.

ST (Structured Text)

The Structured Text is a block-structured language that is

based on Pascal. It is a high-level language. It is also a
text-based language.

IL (Instruction List)

The instruction List is a text-based and a low-level

language.

SFC (Sequential Flow Chart)

The Sequential Flow charts are defined by the function of

charts in a sequence. We can use it if the process can be
divided into steps.
Symbols used in Programming:-
Various symbols are used to create a ladder circuit for PLC
programming. Let's consider some essential symbols.
Ladder Diagram of AND Gate
The ladder diagram of AND Gate is given below:

Here, A and B are the inputs, while L is the lamp. The lamp will
glow when the current flows through the circuit and reaches the
lamp. Otherwise, the lamp will not glow.

When A = 0 and B = 1, the circuit will appear as:

The lamp will not light because the starting button is OFF. The
current will not flow.

But, if A = 1 and B = 1, the circuit will appear as:

Here, the lamp will light. Hence, the condition of the AND gate is
satisfied.

Similarly, we will create a ladder diagram for all the gates using
the same logic, as discussed above.
Applications of PLC
We generally use a desktop or laptop for
programming.
Some of the applications of PLC are
listed below:
o Controlling elevators
o Controlling traffic signals
o Washing machines
o Amusement rides
o Machinery control
o Bottle filling system
o Water tank level control
o These PLCs are available in failsafe and
standard versions.
o It comes with extended communication
functions and improved data transfer.
o It allows the transfer of sensitive machine
data.
o It supports predictive maintenance.
o It also supports data transfer with other
controllers.
o It enables data storage.
H A P P Y E N D IN G