COURSE CODE: GST 111

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NUMBER OF UNITS: 3 Units

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the completion of this course, students are expected to:

1. Define the concept of Computer

2. History of Computer and generations of computer
3. Understand the characteristics of a computer, classes of computer, types of computer and
functions of personal computers
4. Components of a Personal Computer and categories of an operating system
5. Principles of Networking
6. Program development: algorithms and methods of representing
algorithms

INTRODUCTION
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century. Early computers were
large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus they were confined to the laboratories
and few research institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic applications
were confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, the computer is no
longer confined to the laboratory. Computers, and indeed, computing have become embedded in almost
every item we use. Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application in engineering, communication,
space science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation,
manufacturing, the extractive industries to mention but a few.
Definitions
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these
data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output
for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
A computer has four functions:

a. accepts data Input

b. processes data Processing
c. produces output Output
d. stores results Storage

A diagram to define computer

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A Computer System

Brief History of a Computer

A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as the ancient
Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage‟s “analytical engine” ( 1834). It
would also include a discussion of mechanical, analog and digital computing architectures. As late as
the 1960s, mechanical devices, such as the Merchant calculator, still found widespread application in
science and engineering. During the early days of
electronic computing devices, there was much discussion about the relative merits of analog vs. digital
computers. In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog computers were routinely used to solve systems of
finite difference equations arising in oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices proved
to have the power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with large scale computations. Digital
computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from the hand calculator to the
supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society. Therefore, this brief sketch of the development of
scientific c o m p u t i n g i s limited to the area of digital, electronic computers.
The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is characterized by
dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the technology used to build computers, the
internal organization of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not usually associated
with computer generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including algorithms used
in computational science. The following history has been organized using these widely recognized
generations as mileposts.

The First Generation (1946 – 1958)

• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions
• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming
language understood by computers, to perform operations and they could only solve one problem at a time.
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts

Vacuum tube

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The Second Generation (1959 – 1964)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
• One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy- efficient and more
reliable
• Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words
• Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology

Transistor

The Third Generation (965 – 1970)

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
• Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
• It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
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Users interact with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors

Integrated Circuit

The Fourth Generation (1971 – today)

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

Microprocessor

The Fifth Generation (Today to future)

• Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
• Still in development.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality
• The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.
•

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Computer Generations and Their Characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
• Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can
be very fast.
• Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors in
computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There is in-built error detecting
schemes in the computer.
• Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions.
This capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K (Kilo) modules where
K=1024 memory locations.
• Automatic: Once a program is in the computer‟s memory, it can run automatically each time
it is opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.

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• Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack
of concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every time
even if ten million jobs are involved.
• Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps.
Modern computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multi-
programming, real time processing e.t.c.

CLASSES OF COMPUTER
• Analog Computers: This class of computer are special purpose machines that surfaced in
the late forties (1948). They are used solving scientific and mathematical equations or problems. An
example is the thermal analyzer. Data and figures are represented by physical quantities such as angular
positions and voltage.
• Digital Computers: They are machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-flops, buttons
and other electronic devices to make them function at a very fast speed. A digital computer has its
numbers, data letters or other symbols represented in digital format. They are mostly special purpose
machines unless minor specifications are included in the design.
• A computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer is called a hybrid
computer.

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Super Computers
• A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time. These machines
are built to process huge amounts of information and do so very quickly.
• Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists working on projects that
demand very huge amounts of data variables; an example is in nuclear research, where scientists want to
know exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a nuclear chain reaction. (To demonstrate the
capability of super computers, for an air pollution control project that involves more than 500,000
variables, it will take a mini
computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation process while it will take a super computer 30
minutes only).
• They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. (Super computers are made
by CRAY Company).

Mainframe Computers
• The largest types of computers in common use are the mainframe computers. They are
designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage.
• They are used mainly by large organization like the PHCN, NITEL, and CBN.
• Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist of a type of
keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The mainframe is usually in the computer room (Mainframe
computers are made by IBM, Boroughs & Univac).

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Mini Computers
• These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special
purposes or small-scale general purposes.
• The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they lie between
mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle a great deal more input and output
than personal computers.
• Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle dozens or
even hundreds of terminals.
• Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older mainframes of
the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment Company‟s PDP II and Vax rang)

Workstations
• Between mini computers and micro computers – in terms of processing power is a class of
computers known as workstations.
• A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person,
although it is still more powerful than the average personal computer.
The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing smaller. They significantly differ
from micro computers in two ways: the central processing unit (CPU) of workstations are designed
differently to enable faster processing of instructions and most of the micro computers can run any of the
four major operating systems.
• Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)] use UNIX operating system or a
variation of it. (A note of caution: Many people use the term workstation to refer to any computer or
terminal that is connected to another computer. Although this usage was once a common meaning of the
term, it has become out dated) (The biggest manufacturers of workstations are Sun Microsystems).

Micro Computers/Personal Computers

• The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean the small
free- standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms.
• Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks, and cameras.
Today, PCs are seriously challenging mainframes and mini computers in many areas. In fact today PCs are
more powerful than mainframes of just a few years ago, and competition is producing smaller, faster
models every year.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

• THE DESKTOP: This is the first type of PCs and the most common. Most desktops are
small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around.
• THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg). They are battery – operated computers
with built–in screens. They are designed to be carried and used in locations without electricity. Laptops
typically have an almost full –sized keyboard.
• THE NOTEBOOK: They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller. They weigh about 6 to7
pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg). As the name implies, they are approximately the size of a notebook and can easily fit
inside a brief case.
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THE PALMTOP: They are also known as personal digital assistance (PDAs) and are the smallest of
portable computers. Palmtops are much less powerful than notebooks or desktops models and feature
built-in applications such as word processing. They are mostly used to display important telephone
numbers and addresses.

FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers perform include:
• Writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs
• Budgeting and performing accounting tasks
• Analyzing numeric information
• Searching through lists or reports for specific information
• Scheduling and planning projects.
• Creating illustrations
• Communicating by using electronic mail
• Advertising products and services.

COMPONENTS OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER

A personal computer is not a single unit. A typical computer consists of several basic parts or components
that work together. To perform any computer task you need two major components: the hardware and
the software.
[1] The hardware is the physical components of a computer system. Generally you can think of
the hardware as any part of the computer that you can see or touch. Although the hardware of a computer is
capable of performing marvelous tasks, it cannot accomplish any of them without the vital instructions
that the software provides.
[2] The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You can‟t see or touch
the software, although you can see packages that contain the software. It is typically distributed on CD-
ROM disc and is installed on the computer hard drive.

HARDWARE COMPOINENTS
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following:
[1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and instructions from a
user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in communicating with the computer. The most
common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse.

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i. The Keyboard: The keyboard of the personal computer comes in a number of styles.
The various models may differ in size and shape, but except for a few special purpose keys, MDS
keyboards are laid out almost identifiably. The most common keyboard used today was established by
IBM. The computer keyboard is more than just a typewriter. It contains all of the keys required for typing
letters, numbers, plus the keys for entering commands and moving around on the screen. There are 101
keys arranged in groups: Alphanumeric, Numeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and
Computer keys.
ii. A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move around on the screen,
and to select commands from menus rather than type the commands. A mouse is useful because it enables
the user to point at items on the screen and clicks a button to select the item. It is convenient for entering
certain data.
iii. Track Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like an upside-down mouse.
You rest your hand on the exposed ball and the fingers on the button. To move the cursor around the
screen, you roll the ball with your thumb. Trackballs are much popular with notebook computers.
They require less desk space than the mouse.
iv. The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly used for games. It is not used for
business applications.
v. The Pen: It is an input device that allows a user to write on or point at a special pad
on the screen of a pen-based computer, such as a personal digital assistant (PDAS).
vi. The Touch Screen: A computer screen that accepts input directly into the monitor;
users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen. It is appropriate in environment where dirt or
weather would render keyboards and pointing devices useless.
vii. The Scanner: This is an input device used to copy images into a computer memory
without manual keying. It works by converting any image into electronic form by shinning light on the
image and sensing the intensity of reflection at every point. There are several kinds of scanners. These
includes: hand held, flatbed, and sheet- feds.

viii. The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used input devices after
the keyboard and mouse. It is commonly found in supermarkets and department stores. This device
converts a pattern of printed bars on products into a product number by emitting a beam of light frequently
from a laser that reflects off the bar code image. A light sensitive detector identifies the bar-code image by
special bars at both ends of the image. Once it has identified the barcode, it converts the individual bar
patterns into numeric digits.

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Input Devices

[2] Processing Devices: Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the central
processing unit (CPU) and the memory.

a. The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny
electronic chip known as the micro processor located in the system unit. It is installed on the main circuit
board of the computer, the motherboard. The CPU as the name implies is where information is processed
within the computer. In this regard, you might think of the CPU (processor) as the brain of the computer.
The CPU is otherwise known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two basic parts. The control unit
and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The control unit coordinates all the computer activities and contains
the CPUs instruction to carry out commands. The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic
functions. In other words, when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and logic
it refers it to the ALU.

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b. Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the computer: before, while and after
information is processed? It is held in the computer memory or Random Access Memory (RAM).
The memory to which we are referring here is not the kind of long-term storage that allows you to
save work on a floppy disk and months later to use it, but rather a short term holding area that is built
into the computer hardware. While the CPU is fast and efficient, it cannot remember anything by
itself. It often refers to the memory in the computer for software instruction and to remember what it is
working on. The term RAM and memory are often interchangeable. RAM refers to the way the CPU
searches through memory for the information it needs. For the workings of a memory, information is
stored in memory chips. The CPU can get information faster from RAM than it can from a disk. A
computer then reads information or instruction from disks and stores the information in the RAM
where it can get the information quickly. The CPU processes the information and then returns to the
RAM.

Central Processing Unit (CPU Memory

[3] Storage Devices: Among the most important part of a computer system are the devices that allow
you to save data or information. The physical components or materials on which data are stored are called
storage media. A storage device is a piece of hardware that permanently stores information. Unlike
electronic memory, a storage device retains information when electric power is turned off. There are
several storage devices and primary among them are:
a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic made of a flexible (or
floppy) magnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk drives store data on both sides of the
disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single side of the floppy disk.
b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard disks are usually
enclosed within the system unit. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters that spin on one spindle like a
stack of rigid floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where the disk and drive are separate, the hard-disk drive,
or hard drive is the whole unit. Generally you cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however some
manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive unit.
c. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk. CD-ROM is an
acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This implies that the disk can only be read. You cannot
change or overwrite the contents of a CD-ROM disk.
d. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the surface of a
e. magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard disk.
The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A zip drive can be
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internal or external. Zip drives have removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to
250mbof data

Storage Device

[4] Output Devices: Output devices return processed data, that is, information back to the user. In
other words, output devices allow the computer „talk‟ to us. The most common output devices are the
monitor and the printer. Others include modems and speakers.
a. The Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the computer to display to the
user what is going on. It has a screen like that of a television. It is commonly referred to as the screen or
display. It is the main source for output of information from the computer. As data is entered through an
input device, the monitor changes to show the effects of the command. Messages displayed on the screen
allow the user to know if the command is correct.
b. The Printer: The printer is an output device that produces on hard copy or a print out on a
paper i.e. it takes data from its electronic form and prints it out on paper. There are three principal types of
printers; Laser, Inkjet and Dot – Matrix.
c. The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise known as sound boards, is a hard ware board.
It is a device that produces audio sounds and usually provides ports in the back of a computer for external
speakers. It is installed in one of the expansion slot inside the system unit‟s motherboard.
d. The Modem: The modem is a device that allows a computer to communicate with
another computer through a telephone line. Both computers need compatible modem. With a modem, a
computer and required software, you can connect with other computers all over the world.
Output Devices

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SOFTWARE COMPOINENTS
Software is a set of instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute particular
functions or tasks. In other words, it is a programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the
function of the hardware.
For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is, the
instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can understand. Without a
program, a computer is useless.

Computer program is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry out a
process.
There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software.

[1] Applications Software: Applications software includes programs that user access to carry out
work. They include applications for the following functions.
 Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage of
word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping the entire
document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format documents. Example of word
processing software is Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft Works Word, Open Office Word, etc.
 Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and
manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined relationships to
each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and
so on. Example; Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1, 2, 3, and SPSS.
 Database management applications are computer programs that let people create and
manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related information that can be manipulated and
used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate reports. Example is Microsoft Access,
Microsoft SQL, MySQL and Oracle database.
 Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to create
highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various types
of charts and graphs. Many software applications include graphics components including: paint programs,
desktop publishing applications and so on. Example is Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send faxes
and emails and dial into other computers.

[2] Systems Software: includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer
to function. The most important program that runs on a computer is the operating system. Every general-
purpose computer

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must have an operating system in order to run other programs. This includes controlling functions such as
the coordination of the hardware and applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the
input and output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked computers.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

• Booting of Computer: This is the first process which takes place the moment the computer's
electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals connected to the computer are checked
and validated; at the end of the validation process, the OS signals the user to begin working on the
computer.
• Providing User Interface: The OS provides an interface for the user, either as a command
line interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables the user to communicate with the computer.
• Managing the Hardware: OS controls and manages hardware resources. For example, OS
manages the selection and operation of devices used for input, output and storage. In other words the OS
serves as the intermediary between programs and hardware.
• Managing the File System: The operating system groups‟ data together into -logical
compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. The computer stores information in
files. Files may contain program instructions or data created or used by a program. The OS maintains the
list of files on a disk.
• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide services to other
programs. Often these services are similar to those that the OS provides directly to users. For example
when you want your word- processing program to retrieve a document, the word processor will list
the files in the directory that you specify.
• Some of the other services that an OS provides to programs are:
 saving files to disk reading them from disk into memory
 checking available disk or memory space
 allocating memory to hold data for a program

CATEGORIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Multitasking the Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an OS that is able to run
more than one program task per operation time.

There are two types of multitasking operating systems cooperative and preemptive.
• Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the OS and application programs. In
this case the programs are written in such a way that they periodically check with the OS to see whether
any other program needs the CPU. If a program needs the CPU, they relinquish control of the CPU to the
next program. Cooperative multitasking is common with Macintosh OS and DOS computers running
Microsoft Windows.
Preemptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the OS maintain a list of processes (programs) that are
running. Each process on the list is assigned a priority by the OS when it is started. At any time, the OS can
intervene and modify the priority list. The OS also retains control of the amount of time that it spends with
any process before going to the next process. UNIX, OS/2 and Windows NT employ preemptive
multitasking.
2. Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user OS allows more than a single user access to a
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computer at the same time. Of course, to accomplish this, a multi-user OS must also be capable of
multitasking. Only UNIX OS and Windows NT are capable of supporting multiple users. UNIX provides
three ways to let people use the same PC at the same time.
• The first way to connect to a PC running UNIX is from another computer with a
modem. The remote user can log in and run
programs, list files, send e-mails read the news and otherwise do
everything they could do if they were physically in front of the UNIX computer.
• The second way to connect to a UNIX computer is by attaching terminals to the PC.
Terminals are inexpensive devices that consist of a keyboard, and a monitor.
• The third way to tap into a UNIX computer multi-user capabilities is with a
network.
3. Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of OS is required to use a computer
equipped with more than one CPU. In other words, multiprocessing requires an OS capable of using and
managing a series of CPUs. There are two types:

• With asymmetrical multiprocessing one main CPU retains the overall control of the
computer as well as that of the other microprocessor.
• On the other hand in symmetrical multiprocessing there is no single controlling
CPU. This arrangement provides a linear increase in system capacity for each processor added to the
system.
• Some extensions of UNIX supports asymmetric multiprocessing while Windows NT
supports symmetric multiprocessing.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS used to be the most common and most popular of all
the PC operating systems. The reason for its popularity then is because of the overwhelming volume of
available software and large installation of Intel-based PCs. DOS runs on any of the Intel microprocessor.
DOS functions through the command–line interface i.e. DOS functions by commands.
2. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a version of DOS. It was released in 1987.
Microsoft Windows can run standard DOS programs either in a window within the Graphic Use Interface
(GUI) or on a full-screen. To take full advantage of the Microsoft environment you need programs written
for Microsoft Windows.
3. Operating Systems 2 (OS/2): 1BM and Microsoft teamed up to develop the Operating System
2(OS/2) to take full advantage of the multitasking capabilities of the newly introduced Intel 80286
microprocessor. OS/2 like DOS has a character–based command-line mode, but unlike DOS, the command
interpreter is a separate program from the OS kernel and is only involved when you click on the OS/2.
OS/2 runs only on Intel 80286 and later Intel processors.
4. The Macintosh OS: The Macintosh OS is a purely graphic machine. In fact there is no
equipment of a command-line interface available for it. Its tight integration of OS, GUI and desktop make
it desirable for people who do not want to deal with a command-line interface. The Macintosh OS only
runs on Macintosh machine. The Macintosh OS has an additional network protocol built into it and is ideal
for desktop publishing. Installing and configuring a Macintosh with new hardware device is simple.
5. UNIX: UNIX is the first OS that runs on many different types of computers. It runs on Cray
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supercomputers, PCs, and everything in between including mainframes and minicomputers. UNIX is
older than all the other PC operating systems and in many ways served as a model for them. UNIX is based
on a simple idea-small is better. Every command and program that makes up the OS is designed to do a
simple very specific task and do it well. UNIX is an extremely robust and capable OS that utilizes
command –line and there are so many commands.
6. Microsoft Windows NT: Microsoft Windows NT is a new OS designed from scratch for the
most modern and capable machines available. Microsoft Windows NT offers built-in features that no other
PC OS has – with the possible exception of UNIX. In addition to the traditional UNIX features of strict
system security, built-in networking, built-in communications and electronic mail services development
and system administration tools, and a GUI. Microsoft Windows NT can run Microsoft Windows
applications and many UNIX applications, directly. Like OS/2 it is a 32-bit OS that can use 386, 486 and
Pentium processors Microsoft Windows NT is multitasking and purely graphical OS with network
software to make a network client or server. It is single- user and allows access to command line interface
of the DOS unlike the Macintosh.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
We said earlier that software is a program that tells the computer what to do and how to do it. This implies
that without the software computer will practically do nothing and you will not be able to use it at all.
This software cannot be seen like we see the hardware. They are programs.
Programs are coded set of instructions that instruct the computer to perform specific task. In other word, it
tells/instructs the computer what the user intend to do. So to communicate with the computer we would
need software, before we can have software we would need to write a program. To write a good program
we need to develop algorithm and a flowchart. So, what are they?

ALGORITHM /PSEUDO-CODE

Algorithm: An algorithm is a set of steps for solving a particular problem. To be an algorithm, a set of
rules must be unambiguous and have a clear stopping point”. There may be more than one way to solve a
problem, so there may be more than one algorithm for a given problem.
Pseudo-code: A pseudo-code is an algorithm but in this case it uses a mixture of English statements, some
mathematical notations, and selected keywords from a programming language. Most at time when we say
algorithm in computer science we mean pseudo-code.
Before writing an algorithm/pseudo-code for a problem, one should find out what is/are the inputs to the
algorithm and what is/are expected output after running the algorithm. Now let us take some exercises to
develop an algorithm for some simple problems: While writing algorithms we will use following symbol
for different operations:

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„+‟ for Addition
„-‟ for Subtraction
„*‟ for Multiplication
„/‟ for Division and
„ ‟ for assignment. For example A =X*3 means A will have a value of X*3.

SAMPLES OF ALGORITHM AND PSEUDOCODE

PSEUDO-CODE ALGORITHM

START BEGIN:
1. INPUT A First, accept the first number
2. INPUT B Second, accept the second number
3. Sum A + B Add the first and second number together
4. PRINT Sum Print the result
END OF ALGORITHM END OF ALGORITHM

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ALGORITHM

 Each step of an algorithm must be exact. This goes without saying. An algorithm must be
precisely and unambiguously described, so that there remains no uncertainty. An instruction that says
“shuffle the deck of card” may make sense to some of us, but the machine will not have a clue on how to
execute it, unless the detail steps are described. An instruction that says “lift the restriction” will cause
much puzzlement even to the human readers.

 An algorithm must terminate. The ultimate purpose of an algorithm is to solve a problem. If

the program does not stop when executed, we will not be able to get any result from it. Therefore, an
algorithm must contain a finite number of steps in its execution. Note that an algorithm that merely
contains a finite number of steps may not terminate during execution, due to the presence of „infinite
loop‟.

 An algorithm must be effective: An algorithm must provide the correct answer to the problem.

 An algorithm must be general: An algorithm must solve every instance of the problem. For
example a program that computes the area of a rectangle should work on all possible dimensions of the
rectangle.

17
FLOWCHART

A flowchart is a graphical or pictorial representation use to solve a giving problem. To be more precise, it
is a graphical representation of algorithm. It shows sequence of operations and procedures to be taken to
solve the problem. This means by seeing a flow chart one can know the operations performed and the
sequence of these operations in a system. Algorithms are nothing but sequence of steps for solving
problems. So a flow chart can be used for representing an algorithm. A flowchart, will describe the
operations (and in what sequence) are required to solve a given problem. You can see a flow chart as a
blueprint of a design you have made for solving a problem.
For example suppose you are going for a picnic with your friends then you plan for the activities you will
do there. If you have a plan of activities then you know clearly when you will do what activity. Similarly
when you have a problem to solve using computer or in other word you need to write a computer program
for a problem then it will be good to draw a flowchart prior to writing a computer program. Flowchart is
drawn according to defined rules.

Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents through the computer to final
distribution to users.

Program flowcharts show the sequence of instructions in a single program or subroutine. Different symbols
are used to draw each type of flowchart.

A Flowchart does the following:

 shows logic of an algorithm

 emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections e.g. control flow from one
action to the next

18
FLOWCHART SYMBOLS
The basic flowchart symbols are as follows:

SYMBOL NAME FUNCTION

Input/output Use for any input/output

operation

Process Indicate any type of

operation done in the CPU
or memory

Use to ask a question that

can be answered in a binary
Decision format (Yes/No, True/False

On-page connector Provide connection of

program flow within the
same page

Off-page connector Provide connection of program

flow within different pages

Shows direction of flow

Flow lines

19
EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS

Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.

Inputs to the algorithm:
Radius r of the Circle.

Expected output:
Area of the Circle

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle Step3: Area PI*r*r // calculation of area Step4: Print Area
Step5: End

Start

Read r

Area=3.142*r*r

Print: Area

End

20
Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum.

Inputs to the algorithm:

num1. num2.

Expected output:
Sum of the two numbers.

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input: num1. Step3: Read\input: num2.
Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum Step5: Print: Sum
Step6: End

Start

Read: Num1,

Sum=Num1+Num2

Print: Sum
Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to Celsius

Inputs to the algorithm:

Temperature in Fahrenheit

Expected output:
Temperature in Celsius

Algorithm:

Step1: Start
Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F Step 3: C 5/9*(F32)
Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C Step5: End

Start

Read F

C=5/9* (F - 32)

Print: C

End

TYPES OF LOGIC (CONTROL STRUCTURES) USED

In the late 1960s, two mathematicians, Carrado Boehm and Giuseppe Jocopini, proved that even the most
complex logic can be expressed using the three general types of logic or control structures: Sequential
(Begin – End), Selection (If-Then-Else) and Iteration (Do-While or Do-Until). Naturally, these general
types of logic or control structures can be combined in any fashion or combination to produce a process
which when executed will yield the desired result.
SEQUENTIAL (BEGIN – END)
The sequence is exemplified by sequence of statements place one after the other
- the one above or before another gets executed first. In flowcharts, sequence of statements is usually
contained in the rectangular process box.

SELECTION/ BRANCHING (IF-THEN-ELSE)

The branch refers to a binary decision based on some condition. If the condition is true, one of the two
branches is explored; if the condition is false, the other alternative is taken. This is usually represented by
the „if-then‟ construct in pseudo-codes and programs. In flowcharts, this is represented by the diamond-
shaped decision box. This structure is also known as the selection structure.

ITERATIVE/LOOP
The loop allows a statement or a sequence of statements to be repeatedly executed based on some loop
condition. It is represented by the „while‟ and
„for‟ constructs in most programming languages, for unbounded loops and bounded loops respectively.
(Unbounded loops refer to those whose number of iterations depends on the eventuality that the
termination condition is satisfied; bounded loops refer to those whose number of iterations is known
before-hand.) In the flowcharts, a back arrow hints the presence of a loop. A trip around the loop is known
as iteration. You must ensure that the condition for the termination of the looping must be satisfied after
some finite number of iterations, otherwise it ends up as an infinite loop, a common mistake made by
inexperienced programmers. The loop is also known as the repetition structure.

The three basic control structures can be represented pictorially as shown below:

Sequentia Selection Iteration

l

PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING

Computer Networks

Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect groups of people together
create a physical network. Connections with your friends create your personal network. Websites that allow
individuals to link to each other‟s pages are called social networking sites.
People use the following networks every day:

 Mail delivery system

 Telephone system
 Public transportation system
 Corporate computer network
 The Internet

Networks share information and use various methods to direct the manner in which information flows. The
information on the network goes from one place to another, sometimes via different paths, to arrive at the
appropriate destination. For example, the public transportation system is a network similar to a computer
network. The cars, trucks, and other vehicles are like the messages that travel within the network. Each
driver defines a starting point (source computer) and an ending point (destination computer). Within this
system, there are rules such as stop signs and traffic lights that control the flow from the source to the
destination. A computer network also uses rules to control the flow of data between hosts on a network.

A host is any device that sends and receives information on the network. Some devices can serve either as
hosts or peripherals. For example, a printer connected to your laptop that is on a network is acting as a
peripheral. If the printer is connected directly to a network, it is acting as a host.

Many different types of devices can connect to a network:

 Desktop computers
 Laptop computers
 Tablet computers
 Smartphones
 Printers
 File and print servers
 Game console
 Home appliances

Computer networks are used globally in businesses, homes, schools, and government agencies. Many of
the networks are connected to each other through the Internet. A network can share many different types
of resources and data:

 Services, such as printing or scanning

 Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or optical drives
 Applications, such as databases
 Information, stored on other computers
 Documents
 Calendars, synchronizing between a computer and a smartphone
LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES

A logical topology describes how the hosts access the medium and communicate on the network. The two
most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing. In a broadcast topology, a host
broadcasts a message to all hosts on the same network segment. There is no order that hosts must follow to
transmit data. Messages are sent on a First In, First Out (FIFO) basis.

Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially to each host. If a host
wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and a destination address to the token, which is a specially-
formatted frame. The token then travels to another host with the destination address. The destination host
takes the data out of the frame. If a host has no data to send, the token is passed to another host.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES

A physical topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected to a
network. The figure provides six physical topologies
Bus Topology

In a bus topology, each computer connects to a common cable. The cable connects one computer to the
next, like a bus line going through a city. The cable has a small cap installed at the end called a terminator.
The terminator prevents signals from bouncing back and causing network errors.

Ring Topology

In a ring topology, hosts are connected in a physical ring or circle. Because the ring topology has no
beginning or end, the cable is not terminated. A token travels around the ring stopping at each host. If a
host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and the destination address to the token. The token
continues around the ring until it stops at the host with the destination address. The destination host takes
the data out of the token.

Star Topology

The star topology has a central connection point, which is normally a device such as a hub, switch, or
router. Each host on a network has a cable segment that attaches the host directly to the central
connection point. The advantage of a star topology is that it is easy to troubleshoot. Each host is connected
to the central device with its own wire. If there is a problem with that cable, only that host is affected. The
rest of the network remains operational.

Mesh Topology

The mesh topology connects all devices to each other. When every device is connected to every other
device, a failure of any cable or device along a connection does not affect the network. The mesh topology
is used in WANs that interconnect LANs.

INTERNET
The Internet commonly referred to as the Net‟ is better described than defined, as a global network of
computers. It is often described as a network of networks because it first began through the linking of the
existing local computer networks used by universities and governmental organizations. The Internet is a
constellation of computers around the world that speak the same language so information travels
seamlessly from one computer to another. Globally, the Internet connects scientific research, educational,
government, commercial and business networks. When you connect to the Internet, your computer
becomes part of the global network of computers. The Internet is more than a technological marvel. The
peace is quick, with messages and information racing round the world in a few seconds. It has ushered in
an era of sweeping changes in networking and communication that has left no business, agency,
organization or government untouched.

How the Internet Developed

The Internet began in the 1960s when the US Department of Defense through ARPANET (Advanced
Research Project Agency Network) began creating a computer network that would continue to function
in the event of a major disaster. In 1969, four mainframe computers at a U.S. university were linked into a
network that transferred data on dedicated high-speed transmission lines. Through the 1970s and 1980s
new similar networks were created to link educational institutions, government offices and military centers
in the United States and other countries. In the 1990s, as the Internet grew, private businesses and other
regional network providers took over the operation of the major Internet networks and the development of
much of the information available online. Private businesses, educational institutions, organizations and
individuals now develop much of the information content available online.

How Information is transmitted on the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide complex of small regional networks. To understand this, picture a major road
connecting large cities. Smaller roads link the cities to small towns where residents travel on narrow
residential streets. The high-speed Internet is the major road in this scenario. Connected to it are smaller
computer networks (functioning like smaller, less traveled roads) that can share data information at high
speeds. In order to enable different computers to communicate and transmit packaged information with
each other, a standard protocol‟ has been established for transporting data. This Internet protocol is called
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and allows all networks all over the world to
communicate with each other on the Internet.
When transmitting information over a network or the Internet, it is in the same binary form as when it is
stored on a computer, but the data has to be packaged for transmission. This procedure is necessary
because bits travelling freely on the network will have no meaning to network devices. So before data is
transmitted on the Internet, network software forms the data into packets.

Benefits of the Internet

Basically and generally, the benefits derivable from the utilization of the Internet are mainly as follows:
• Speed/Time Saving: The speed of transmission on the Internet is the significant benefit of the Internet. A
letter or document that could take days to arrive by regular mail can be sent to the other side of the world in
• Breadth/Reach: The Internet gives you access to a vast (and growing) collection of databases,
documents, computer software; these and almost any other kind of information can be stored electronically.
• Cost Saving: Exchanging information via the Internet is less expensive than using telephones
or fax machines especially where telephone access fees are high. Likewise marketing and advertising your
products and services on the Internet can be less expensive than using conventional printing and document-
delivery methods.
• Two-way Communication: Audiences now have the means to respond directly to sources of
information, research and opinion.
• Trading: The Internet provides the opportunity for purchase and sale of goods and services.
Specifically, the Internet through the E-Commerce has provided the business community, among others,
the following benefits:
i. Improved response time to clients‟ requests
ii. Improved competitive position
iii. Eased the process of concluding deals and financial transactions
iv. Extended market reach and increased revenue potentials
v. Increased consumer convenience and choice
vi. Reduced prices
vii. Improved customer service
SERVICES OFFERED ON THE INTERNET
The major Internet services are as follows:

Electronic Mail (e-mail): This is the most popular and most utilized Internet service especially in the
developing countries of the world. A conservative estimate puts the number of people using the e-mail
worldwide at more than 90 million people. E-mail is message sent from one person to another via a
computer network. The same e-mail can be sent easily to one address or many addresses. Commercial
electronic mail is used for the same purposes as the organization wide mail system. But instead of being
limited to members of one organization, the service is made available to the public on subscription bases.
E-mail messages are exchanged between customers, suppliers, friends and business partners. E-mail
service has cut down on the cost of mailing or sending information thus saving time and money. E-mail is
used as a marketing tool, for example, a company, Dealaday.com uses e-mail to prospect for customers and
sends group e-mail to 10,000 user names all customers who have indicated they would like to receive e-
mails. With e-mail they receive a 7%, 8% and sometimes 10% response, unlike 1% or 2% response in
normal direct marketing.

The World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web or the web is one of the Internet‟s most popular
applications and it was launched in 1991. It is a graphical, easy–to-use way to organize and present
information, including texts, images, movies, sounds and more.
The World Wide Web has generated tremendous popular interest in the Internet. The www is unique for
two reasons. Firstly it is highly interactive media bringing documents in graphics, audio and video.
Secondly, it uses hyperlink, which provides connections between different resources. It allows users to
jump from one page to another.
A file in www is called the home page and usually contains a multimedia clip. A page can link you to
other web pages and Internet resources with clicks of a mouse. You can view and download any
information you need on any home page with the aid of software known as the web browser.

File Transfer Protocol (ftp): File transfer protocol (ftp) is an Internet tool used to transfer files between
computers and it is the most common method of transferring files on the Internet. Without viewing them as
they are transferred the ftp enables you to access file on a remote location on the Internet once you log on
to an ftp site, and you are able to access all files on sites and download them if you so desire. It is fairly
easy to publish information on the Internet. Many institutions maintain publicly accessible archive of
information that they want to share with others.

Telnet: Telnet is an Internet service that allows you to connect to a remote computer to use specific
databases or other applications available on that computer. Telnet is one of the first applications widely
used on the Internet. Many telnet applications are now available on the World Wide Web where they are
easier to use.
Internet Conference: This is an Internet service whereby different techniques are used to allow people to
discuss topics of mutual interest. A conference can be as simple as sending e-mail to many different people
or as complex as arranging to have people link different cities, see images of each other and hear each other
talk in real time- that is video conferencing. Internet conferencing is possible, but the technology becomes
more complex and the speed of the connection becomes more important as you go from text only, to
transmitting sound and video in real time. Internet conference brings about tremendous savings on
travelling, time and money.

Internet Telephony: This is a service in which you can use the Internet as a voice telephone line. With
some types, both you and the person you are calling must have an Internet connection and be online at the
time you wish to talk. Some companies also offer Internet-to- telephone services where from your
computer you can call any telephone number in the world. Internet telephone services are inexpensive
when you compare them with the conventional cost of telephone services. If your organization spends a lot
of money on long distance telephone calls, this might be a good option for you. There are growing numbers
of companies providing Internet telephone services.

Internet Fax: Internet fax is a service that takes a special type of e-mail message and sends it to a fax
machine specified in the message. The message can be faxed to a computer (Internet-to-Internet).

THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

For a modem to bring information, it must have a number to dial. This is where an Internet service provider
(ISP) comes in. The ISP is the organization that gives a subscriber access to the information super
highway. So to be connected to the Internet you need to subscribe to an ISP. There are several ISPs
scattered all over the world; some of the popular ones are American Online (AOL), UK Line and
CompuServe. Here in Nigeria, some of the common ones are Hyperia, Infoweb, Cyberspace, Linkserv,
Nigeria Online, Nigeria Net, Nitel, Nova, Prodigy, etc. The choice of an ISP depends mostly on the
effectiveness in the transmission of information, that is, speed of service is an important criterion for
selecting an ISP. The efficiency of an ISP, in terms of speed of transmission of information, can be
determined by the bandwidth it can support. A bandwidth this a measure of the amount of data line,
satellite link etc. The bandwidth available determines the total capacity of an ISP to move data anywhere in
the world.

INTRANET
An intranet is a local area network that companies use to distribute information and speed up the movement
of data within offices. In other words an intranet allows the job of processing to be distributed among
multiple computers. Intranet activities usually take place behind secure „firewalls‟ that only authorized
users have access to.
An intranet can span multiple business locations via the Internet. Intranets are built using the same standard
Internet software such as TCP/IP, e-mail client, web browser and telephone dialer.

EXTRANET
When a company makes open its internal network or intranet to selected business partners, the intranet
becomes an extranet. Suppliers, distributors and other authorized users can then connect to the
companys network over the Net‟ or through virtual private networks. Once inside, they can view the data
the company makes available.
 COMPUTER MEMORY

The main function of computer memory is to store software. Computer memory is divided into two:
Primary memory and Secondary memory.

Primary memory

Primary memory is divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Secondary memory:
Secondary memory are called storage device. Example of secondary memory devices are: Hard disk,
floppy disks, CD ROMs etc

NOTE:

 The CPU can read and write to RAM but can only read from the ROM but not write into
ROM.
 RAM is volatile but ROM is not volatile.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) chips are located on the motherboard and other circuit boards. ROM chips
contain instructions that can be directly accessed by a CPU. Basic instructions for operation, such as
booting the computer and loading the operating system, are stored in ROM. ROM chips retain their
contents even when the computer is powered down. The contents cannot be erased or changed by normal
means.

NOTE:

Read only memory (ROM) chips: Information is written to a ROM chip when it is manufactured. A
ROM chip cannot be erased or re-written and is obsolete.

CATEGORIES OF ROM

 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

Programmable read only memory. Information is written to a PROM chip after it is manufactured. A
PROM chip cannot be erased or re- written.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Information is written to an EPROM chip after it is
manufactured. An EPROM chip can be erased with exposure to UV light. Special equipment is required.

 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Electrically erasable programmable read only memory. Information is written to an EEPROM chip after it
is manufactured. EEPROM chips are also called Flash ROMs. An EEPROM chip can be erased and re-
written without having to remove the chip from the computer.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
There are three categories of programming languages:

1. Machine languages (ML)

2. Assembly languages (AL)
3. High-level languages (HLL)

The ML and AL are classified as Low-Level Languages (LLL).

Machine Lanaguage (ML)

This is the fundamental language of the computer‟s processor. It is made up of binary-coded instructions,
which is used directly by the computer. All programs are converted into ML before they can be executed.
The language consists of 0‟s and 1‟s. Example: 100101, 010011

Advantages

 Fast and efficient

 Machine friendly
 No translation is required

Disadvantages

 Not portable
 Not programmer friendly

Assembly Lanaguage (AL)

Also a low-level language (LLL) which is similar to the machine language is the AL. It was developed
to make programmers job easier. It uses symbolic operation code to represent the machine operation code.

Symbolic operation codes are in an easy-to-remember form called mnemonics.

Assembly languages have some of the advantages and all of the disadvantages of machine languages.

Advantages

It is machine friendly as compare to high-level language

Disadvantages

 Not portable
 Not programmer friendly

Compare the following machine language and assembly language programs:

8086 Machine language program for 8086 Assembly language program for
var1=var1+ var2 var1=var1+ var2
1010 0001 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV AX, var1 ADD AX, var2 MOV var!, AX
0000 0011 0000 0110 0000 0000 0000
0010
1010 0011 0000 0000 0000 0000
High Level Lanaguage (HLL)
The HLL began to appear in the 1950‟s – COBOL is an example of such early HLL used to create complex
computer programs without necessarily knowing how the CPU works and without writing a large number
of low-level instructions. The HLL uses English like statements such as PRINT, WHILE, GOTO etc.

A high level language has two primary components:

1. A set of built-in language primitives and grammatical rules

2. A translator

HLL program consists of English-like statements that are governed by a strict syntax.

Advantages

 Portable or machine independent

 Programmer-friendly

Disadvantages

 Not as efficient as low level languages

 Need to be translated

Examples are C++, Visual Basic, Pascal, etc.

LANGAUGE TRANLATORS

As mention earlier, one of the disadvantages of a high-level language is that it must be translated to
machine language. High level languages are translated using translators.

A language translator translates a high level language program or an assembly language program into a
machine language program.

TYPES OF TRANSLATORS

 Assemblers
 Compilers
 Translators

ASSEMBLERS

An assembler is a program that translates an assembly language program, written in a particular assembly
language, into a particular machine language

COMPILERS

A compiler is a program that translates a high level language program, written in a particular high level
language, into a particular machine language.
INTERPRETERS

An interpreter is a program that translates a high level language program, one instruction at a time, into
machine language. As instruction is translated it is immediately executed. Interpreted program are
generally slower than compiled programs because compiled programs can be optimised to get faster
execution.
NOTE:

 Some high level languages are compiled while others are interpreted.
 There are also languages like Java, which are first compiled and then interpreted.
 COMPUTER VIRUS

Computer Virus

Computer virus is one of the greatest threats to computers and computer applications. Once the virus is made it

will generally be distributed through shareware, pirated software, e-mail or other various ways of transporting

data, once the virus infects someone's computer it will either start infecting other data, destroying data,

overwriting data, or corrupting software. The reason that these programs are called viruses is because it is

spreads like a human virus, once you have become infected either by downloading something off of the

Internet or sharing software any disks or write able media that you placed into the computer will then be

infected. When that disk is put into another computer their computer is then infected, and then if that person

puts files on the Internet and hundreds of people download that file they are all infected and then the process

continues infecting thousands if not millions of people.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF COMPUTER VIRUS

The majority of viruses are contracted from mobile external storage devices by bringing information from one

source and then put onto your computer. VIRUSES can infect disks and when that disk is put into your

computer your computer will then become infected with that virus, a recent survey done in 1997 by NCSA

given to 80 percent of PC users showed that 90% of PC users contract viruses by floppy disk from mobile

external storage devices.

In the survey done above it showed that the other 20% of viruses were contracted by email attachments and

over the Internet. This means that you received an email with an attached file and opened the file. Or

downloaded a file over the Internet.

VIRUS PROPERTIES

Your computer can be infected even if files are just copied. Because some viruses are memory resident as

soon as a program is loaded into memory the virus then attaches itself into memory.

Can be Polymorphic. Some viruses have the capability of modifying their code which means one virus could

have various amounts of similar variants.

Can be memory / Non memory resident. Depending on the virus can be memory resident virus which first

attaches itself into memory and then infects the computer. The virus can also be Non memory resident which

means a program must be ran in order to infect the computer.

Can be a stealth virus. Stealth viruses will first attach itself to files on the computer and then attack the

computer this causes the virus to spread more rapidly.

Viruses can carry other viruses and infect that system and also infect with the other virus as well.

Because viruses are generally written by different individuals and do not infect the same locations of memory

and or files this could mean multiple viruses can be stored in one file, diskette or computer.

Can make the system never show outward signs. Some viruses will hide changes made such as when

infecting a file the file will stay the same size.

Can stay on the computer even if the computer is formatted. Viruses have the capability of infecting

different portions of the computer such as the CMOS battery or master

HOW VIRUSES MAY EFFECT FILES

Viruses can affect any files however usually attack .com, .exe, .sys, .bin, .pif or any data files. Viruses have the

capability of infecting any file however will generally infect executable files or data files such as word or excel

documents which are open frequently.

It can increase the files size, however this can be hidden. When infecting files virtues will generally

increase the size of the file however with more sophisticated viruses these changes can be hidden.

It can delete files as the file is ran. Because most files are loaded into memory and then ran once the program

is in memory the Virus can delete the file.

It can corrupt files randomly. Some destructive viruses are not designed to destroy random data but

instead randomly delete or corrupt files.

It can cause write protect errors when executing .exe files from a write protected disk. Viruses may need

to write themselves to files which are executed because of this if a diskette is write protected you may receive

a write protection error.

It can convert .exe files to .com files. Viruses may use a separate file to run the program and rename the

original file to another extension so the exe is ran before the com.

It can reboot the computer when a files is ran. Various computers may be designed to reboot the computer

when ran.

WHAT VIRUSES MAY DO

The following are possibilities you may experience when you are infected with a virus. Remember that you

also may be experiencing any of the following issues and not have a virus.

Once the hard drive is infected any disk that is non-write protected disk that is accessed can be infected.

Deleted files

Various messages in files or on programs. Changes volume label.

Marks clusters as bad in the FAT.

Randomly overwrites sectors on the hard disk. Replaces the MBR with own code.

Create more then one partitions.

Attempts to access the hard disk drive can result in error messages such as invalid drive

specification.

Causes cross linked files.

Causes a "sector not found" error. Cause the system to run slow.

Logical partitions created, partitions decrease in size. A directory may be displayed as garbage.

Directory order may be modified so files such as COM files will start at the beginning of the directory.

Cause Hardware problems such as keyboard keys not working, printer issues, modem issues etc.

Disable ports such as LPT or COM ports Caused keyboard keys to be remapped Alter the system time/

date
 Cause system to hang or freeze randomly. Cause activity on HDD or FDD randomly. Increase file size.

Increase or decrease memory size. Randomly change file or memory size. Extended boot times

Increase disk access times

Cause computer to make strange noises, make music, clicking noises or beeps. Display pictures

Different types of error messages

DETECTING VIRUSES

The most commonly used method of protecting against and detecting viruses is to purchase a third party

application designed to scan for all types of viruses. A list of these protection programs are listed above.

Alternatively a user can look at various aspects of the computer and detect possible signs indicating a virus is

on the computer. While this method can be used to determine some viruses it cannot clean or determine the

exact virus you may or may not have.

Conclusion

Computer viruses are perhaps the greatest threats to the computer. If not detected and promptly cured,

computer virus attack could lead to the total breakdown of computer a installation. With the aid of our

discussion in this unit, students should be able to prevent, detect and clean viruses in a computer installation.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

Introduction

The auxiliary equipment as their name suggests are not computers but are necessary in a computing

environment in order to ensure proper functioning and smooth running of computing activities. In this module,

we shall address in some details the importance of equipment such as air conditioner, voltage stabilizer,

uninterruptible power system and line transformer in a data processing environment.

Air Conditioner

A Computer is an electronic machine. It is, therefore, capable of generating heat. A computer is manufactured
to operate in an environment with a specific temperature range. When the temperature of the environment in

which a computer is kept falls outside the specific range, the computer may function badly and consequently

get damaged.

The free air is basically, dust laden. Dust is metallic in nature and, as such, capable of conducting electricity. If

dust is allowed to settle on a computer, particularly the electronic circuits, the dust can bridge two circuits. The

bridging of two electronic circuits may cause a serous damage to the computer. Thus, air conditioners are

needed in a computer environment to:

a. Condition the temperature

b. Prevent dust.

Voltage Stabilizer

A computer when switched on, takes off at a cold state, warms up and gradually gets to a hot state. At a hot

state, a computer is always roaming in an attempt to find something to do. In a situation where the public

electricity such as that of PHCN in Nigeria is cut suddenly, the computer would suddenly be brought to a halt.

The sudden power cut may cause the computer to loose the memory of some basic house keeping operations

when power eventually returns and the computer is switched on. The sudden power cut may also cause

irreparable damages to the file the computer was processing at the time the power was suddenly cut.

Line Voltage Transformer

We note that computers are built to operate within a specific range of voltages. In the United State of America,

computers are built to operate on 110V. A voltage transformer is a device meant to step up or step down a

voltage as the case may be. In Nigeria, for example, a 110V computer requires a voltage transformer to step

down the 240V to 110V. Similarly, in USA, a 2409V current is connected directly to a 110V computer, the

computer power unit will blow up almost immediately.

Today, the technology has improved tremendously such that if a 240V current is connected directly to a 110V

computer, only a fuse, rather than the power unit will blow up. It is worth mentioning, too, that there is an

advanced technology today which permits a computer to operate effectively and efficiently with the power line

voltage ranging between 110V and 240V. The technology supports an inbuilt switch which can be operated at
two terminals namely: the 110V terminus and 240V terminus. In recent times, the technology has been

improved upon such that computers are manufactured in such a way that they can sense the voltage that is

adequate. Thus, if one connects a 110V computer to a 240V current, the 110V computer has an in-built line

transformer which automatically steps down the 240V current to 110V.

Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS)

An Un-interruptible Power System (UPS) is an auxiliary hardware that is capable of:

(a) Converting the public electricity raw line into fine line, that is, conditioning the voltage

that is fed into the computer.

(b) Storing electrical energy when the public electricity line is life

(c) Releasing the stored electrical energy to the computer when the public electricity line is

dead.

Conclusion

The computer is an expensive resource and as such requires adequate protection from electrical damage.

Similarly, the UPS is an expensive resource; hence there is the need for it to be protected from electrical

damage, too. Therefore, in practice, it is desirable that the UPS be protected by a voltage stabilizer which is

rugged and less expensive.

The configuration presented in Figure is an example of a computer environment characterized by the multiple

levels of protection from electrical damage. This arrangement is desirable in a situation of electrical surge and

blown out.
 Computer Keyboard

A Computer keyboard is identical to the conventional typewriter keyboard. However, it has more keys than the
typewriter keyboard. A computer keyboard can be a dummy type or intelligent type. A computer keyboard is
considered too be intelligent if, in addition to performing the routine functions characteristic of a typewriter
keyboard, it can initiate a series of actions for a computer to carry out by mere pressing a key or combination
of two or more keys. An intelligent computer keyboard has a set of keys and when one of them is pressed, the
computer can be made to carry out a specific function. For example, the pressing of a key may cause the
computer to display a menu list from which a human being may be prompted to select one.

The intelligent computer keyboard has four major divisions, namely: Function keys, Alphanumeric keys,
Numeric keys and Control keys.

In addition to the four types of keys, there are some special or important keys such as the following:
(a) Return or Enter key
(b) Escape key denoted by ESC
(c) Control key denoted by CTRL
(d) Alternate key denoted by ALT
(e) Delete key denoted by DEL
(f) Insert key denoted by INS
(g) Backspace key
(h) Shift key.
Function Keys
The effects of the functions keys are software package dependent. That is, they mean different translations
depending on which software package one is running on the computer. The function keys are traditionally
labeled F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9, F10, F11 and F12. The function keys are often arranged to the left
of the main keyboard in two columns or they are arranged in a row above the main keyboard. In most software
packages, the function key F1 is used to run the HELP program. Word perfect, for example, uses F3 for HELP
program and F1 to cancel the last command issued on the computer. The function keys F7 and F12 are used to
save a text and block a section of a text respectively in word perfect. Function keys can be programmed to
carry out the functions desired by a programmer. For example the function keys F10 may be programmed to
display menus. Thus, the operations of the function keys can be determined by the user or programmed by the
software package being used at any point in time.
Alphanumeric Keys
The Alphanumeric keys can be likened with the conventional typewriter keys. They contain alphabetic
characters, numeric characters and special characters such as comma, full stop, open bracket, close bracket,
asterisk, semicolon, colon, question mark, and so on. Usually, each key carries a character at the lower part
and another character at the upper part. The SHIFT key is used to switch on or off the lower and upper
characters by the programmer.

Cursor Control Keys

The cursor marks the active or current spot on the screen. It is an indicator that tells the user where in the midst
of a document the system is pointing to. It may be a rectangular bar of light or a blinking underscore. When a
text is being typed, the cursor moves as the carriage on a keyboard moves and character are typed in. The
cursor control keys include four directional arrow keys.
CONTROL KEY FUNCTIONS

Moves the cursor one line up.

Moves the cursor one line down

Moves the cursor one character to the right

Move the cursor one character to the left.

HOME Moves the cursor to the beginning of a line or page

Move the cursor to the bottom left of a page or to the end of the
END current line in most text editors

Moves the cursor to the top of the next page in the document or text.
For
PGDN example, pressing this key while on page 5 of the text will place the cursor at
the top of the page 6 of the text.

PGUP Moves the cursor to the top of the previous page. For example, if you are on
page 3 of a document, pressing this key will place the cursor at the top of page 2 of the document

Other cursor control keys are HOME, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN, and END. These keys may be part of the
numeric keypad or separated from the numeric keypad. Moving the cursor around on the screen is one of the
most common tasks in an application program. In fact, cursor movement is so important in an application such
as word processing that it can usually be accomplished by additional key-driven commands. The control keys
and their functions are documented in Table the above table.
Numeric Keypad
’,
The numeric keypad contains a set of keys required for typing or entering number
’, digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9 into the computer store. A numeric key is often activated by pressing the Numlock Key. The numeric
keypad is also used in combination with Alternate (Alt) key to produced extended characters. Extended
characters are characters not normally found on most keyboard. For example, to produced the character
alpha data denoted ‘ one holds down the Alt key and press 224; to produce character beta denoted by ‘
 one holds down the Alt key and press 255 and to produce pound sterling denoted by ‘ ₤’, one holds
down the Alt key and press 156.

Shift Key

When the Shift key is pressed, the capital letters on the alphanumeric keys are activated. It also serves as the
activator of characters that are at the upper part of each alphanumeric key. The Shift key has no effects on
itself; its effect are realized when some other keys are pressed. Thus, if one presses the shift key and then
‘equal’ sign key, the ‘plus’ sign which is at the upper part of the ‘equal’ sign is a ctivated and then it appears
on the screen.

CapLock Key

The CapLock Shifts all alphabetic characters into upper case (capital letters). Thus all characters typed are in
lower case (small letters) when not pressed.

Alternate Key (Alt)

The Alternate key can be used in combination with numeric keys to generate characters not shown on the
keyboard, that is, extended characters. For example, holding the Alt key down and pressing 228 produces the
summation ( ) sign; holding the Alt key down and pressing 235 produce sign. To restart or reboot your
computer, press Alt, Ctrl and Del keys simultaneously.
NumLock Key

The Numlock key activates the numeric keypad. Neither NumLock nor CapLock affects the function keys.

Control Key (Ctrl)

The Control key is often used in most text mode to perform block operations like mass deletion, insertion and
so on. For example, CTRL + Y deletes a line in most text documents. It can also be used in combination with
other keys to move the cursor to different locations in a text or document. In some application packages, the
Alt, Ctrl and Shift key are used in combination with the function keys to perform several operations. For
example, in Word Perfect word processing package, to centre a text; press Shift and F6; to print a text, press
Shift and F7.

Escape Key (Esc)

The Escape key cancels an operation in progress. For example, when one is editing a file or issuing a
command, ESC cancels any changes one might have made or terminates the command.

Return or Enter Key

The Return key serves as one of the most important keys on most keyboards. It is actually used to inform the
computer the end of an input or command. It performs two functions depending on the program with which it
is used. For example, suppose you are asked to respond to an operating system command at the prompt or
other entries, the operating system will wait until the return key is pressed before continuing. Pressing the
return key also positions the cursor at the beginning of the next line ( in text mode), which is the equivalent of
pressing the carriage return on a typewriter.

Insert Key (Ins)

Pressing the Insert key puts ones keyboard in insert mode, pressing it again returns to overstrike (typeover)
mode. In insert mode, the characters one types are inserted at the cursor position, the character at the cursor
position and all characters to the right, shift to make room for them. In overstrike or typeover mode, newly
typed characters overwrite the characters at the current cursor position. In most application software insert
mode is indicated by a symbol in the status line.
Delete Key (Del)

The delete key deletes the character at the cursor position when pressed and the remaining text moves to the
left while the cursor remains at the same position.

Back Space Key

The Back Space Key deletes the characters to the left of the cursor when pressed and all other characters to the
right of the cursor are shifted one space to the left.

Spacebar

The Spacebar is the longest key found on most keyboards. It erases characters at the cursor position or gives
blank space when pressed.

Tab Key

The Tab Key moves the cursor by five spaces to the right when pressed. The number of positions moved
depend on the software or the Tab Set by the operator. The Tab is normally pressed to insert paragraphs during
typing. In some programs, when this key is pressed in combination with shift key, the same number of
positions is moved backwards.

Print Screen Key (Prtsc)

When the Print Screen key is pressed in combination with the Shift Key, whatever in is the screen will be
printed on a printer. The same effect can be achieved by pressing the key alone on some keyboards.

Keeping Your Keyboard Clean and Working

Never spill liquids on your keyboard. Coffee, soda, and other beverage spills can ruin your keyboard. Liquid

spills on the keyboard have even been known to cause electrical damage to the PC itself. With that in mind,

though you may not stop drinking coffee around your computer, you should at least get a spill-proof mug or
keep the coffee on the other side of the desk.

Another enemy of keyboards is static electricity. Static electricity can have the same damaging effect on your

keyboard as does liquid. If your keyboard doesn't respond properly after a strong static charge, you may just

need to turn off the PC and turn it back on to reset the keyboard. In some cases, however, the static discharge

can zap the keyboard and even parts of the PC. If you shuffle your feet across carpet or your PC is in a room

with dry air, avoid touching the PC or the keyboard until you have touched something metal to discharge any

static. If you don't have a metal desk or bookcase in your work area, consider buying an anti-static mat and

keeping it where you can touch it before touching the PC.

Dust, dirt, food crumbs, and hair are other enemies of keyboards. Try to avoid eating over the keyboard and if

your computer is in a dirty, dusty area, keep the keyboard covered when not in use.

Some dirt and dust is unavoidable. To keep the keyboard working well, you should occasionally clean it.

Mouse and Joystick

A mouse looks like the electrical clipper in a barbing saloon. It consists of a pointing device very sensitive to
movements. It has a roller ball and two or more buttons which can be pressed to make selection. By moving
the mouse on a flat smooth surface and clicking one or combination of two buttons on its upper surface, a
computer to which it is connected can be sensitized and commanded to carry out some specific tasks.

A mouse can be used to draw diagrams on computer screen more effectively and efficiently than the computer
keyboard. Generally, the keyboard and the mouse do complement each other. For example, the mouse can be
used to highlight an item in a menu list while the keyboard Enter Key can be pressed to activate or evoke the
command associated with the highlighted item.

A mouse is the primary input device for modern computers that feature operating systems with a graphical

user interface, such as Windows 98 or Windows XP. While keyboards obviously excel at entering text,

numbers, and symbols, your mouse is the tool you'll use to tell your computer what to do with all the data

you've entered.

Joysticks are almost exclusively used with game software and help the user more effectively control the

actions of computer-simulated airplanes or arcade-style games.

All modern PC operating systems (Windows 98, Windows XP, and the Macintosh) rely on an on-screen
pointer to select and execute commands. A mouse is simply an input device built to help the user control this

on-screen pointer in as natural and efficient a manner as possible.

The pointer on the screen mimics the movements of your mouse. As you move your mouse, a ball encased in

the bottom of your mouse rolls on the desk and in turn sends signals to the computer as to which direction to

move the pointer on the screen. Move the mouse side to side, or up and down, and the on-screen pointer moves

in a similar manner.

Once you have the mouse positioned to select the command or data you want to act on, you use the mouse

buttons to execute the command. The mouse controls the on-screen pointer and lets you select program icons,

manipulate property sheets, and access data.

Printers

A printer is the computer component that lets you create copies of the information stored in your computer on

paper. The printed material is often called hard copy, to differentiate it from the data stored on a disk, or held

in the computer's memory.

There are three basic types of printers available for use with personal computers:

Laser printers. These combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer high-quality

characters or images onto a page.

Inkjet printers. These have small nozzles that actually spray fast-drying ink onto the page to form characters

or images. Inkjet printers spray a fine, quick-drying ink through small nozzles to produce characters and

images on paper. Although the results are not quite as sharp as those of laser printers, inkjet printers provide

very good quality output at a lower cost. Dot-matrix printers.

These use a print head to strike an inked ribbon against paper, like a typewriter, creating characters out of a

series of dots. Dot-matrix printers are the cheapest printers available. They create text and images on the page

by hammering several small pins against an inked ribbon. The more pins used, the better the image--9-pin and

24-pin are common options. The 24-pin printers produce a better quality output, but are somewhat slower than
the 9-pin printers.

Print quality for dot-matrix printers is often described in terms of mode: draft mode (low resolution), near-

letter-quality mode (medium resolution), or letter-quality mode (high resolution). The speed depends on the

mode, with draft mode being the fastest.

The type of printer you choose depends on your budget and the type of output you need. For example, if all
you need to print are grocery lists, you may be happy with a dot-matrix printer. In general, dot-matrix printers
are noisier, slower, and produce a poorer-quality image than do laser or inkjet printers, but they are also less
expensive. If you need to print newsletters, brochures, or illustrated reports, you will probably want a high-
quality laser printer. Laser printers cost more than other printers, but they may be worth the price because they
are fast, quiet, and produce high-quality text and graphics.