Focus: PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

Part ONE. CONTENT REVIEW

I. The Teacher as a Corporate Professional

Polished Look

 Dress suited for a professional

 Tasteful accessories (jewelry, bags, shoes, etc.)
 Tasteful Make-up for female
 Personal hygiene

Polished Demeanor

 Professional walking
 The professional “sit”
 The professional “hand shake”

Polished Language

 Voice
 Gesture

II. Relevant Term

A. Principle

 A general or fundamental law, doctrine or assumption; a primary source or origin;

rule or code of conduct

B. Approach

 Refers to the teacher’s viewpoint toward the process of teaching

C. Method

 Refers to the regular ways or orderly procedures employed by the teachers and the
principles needed to accomplish the aims of the learning situations

D. Strategy

 Refers to the general design of how the teacher in carrying out the procedures or act
of subject matter, and pedagogical theory

E. Technique

 is implementational and that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a

particular trick, or contrivance, used to accomplish an immediate objective.

 it depends on the teacher, his individual artistry, and on the composition of the clas

F. Teaching

 Interacting, tutoring or educating

 Refers to pedagogy, training, nurturing
 Involves activities that will enable learners develop holistically (knowledge, values,
skills)

G. Device – is a teaching aid or tool to facilitate instruction.

II. Functions of Principles

 Principles serve as bases of intelligent and profitable practice

  Principles should serve not only to stimulate, direct and guide but interpret school
practice.

III. Types of Principles

a. Starting Principles – involve the nature of the learner and his psychological and
his physiological endowments that make education possible.
b. Guiding Principles – refers to the procedure, methods of instruction, techniques
of a teacher
c. Ending Principles – refers to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes,
purposes or results of the whole educational scheme

IV. Principles of Good / Successful Teaching

A. According to John Dewey

1. Teaching is good when the child is made the center of the educative process.
2. Teaching is good when it is well-planned.
3. Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be
accomplished.
4. Teaching is good when it provides learning experiences.
5. Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences.
6. Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner.
7. Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
8. Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles.
9. Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and
instructional devices.
10. Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process.
11. Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of the teaching and
learning.

V. Managing Instruction

A. Determining Instructional Objectives

1. Aims

 Refer to broad statements about the intent of education

 Broad guides for translating the needs of society into educational policy
 “To prepare students for democratic citizenship”

2. Goals

 Statements that will describe what schools are expected to accomplish

 Statements that cut across subjects and grade levels and represent the entire
school program
 “To develop reading skills”

3. Objectives

 Description of what eventually take place in the classroom

 Specific skills, tasks, and attitudes stated in behavioural terms, which are
measurable and attainable
 Are guidelines to be taught and learned, standard way of judging objectives
achieved on a certain level or not
 “To explain the nature of reading”

B. How do you write a Learning Objective?

 focus on student performance not teacher performance

 focus on product – not process
 focus on terminal behavior – not subject matter
 include only one general learning outcome in each objective
 C. Taxonomy of Objectives

 Cognitive Learning Domain – generally the primary concern in higher

education; learning of information and the processes of dealing with that
information
 Affective – learning of beliefs, attitudes, and values
 Psychomotor – learning of physical movements such as ballet steps, how to
pitch a curve ball, etc.

TABLE OF PROCESS ORIENTED LEARNER BEHAVIORS

KNOWLEDGE
Recall, identify, recognize, acquire, distinguish

COMPREHENSION
Translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, transform

APPLICATION
Apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair, explain

ANALYSIS
Analyse, estimate, compare, observe detect, classify, discover, discriminate, explore,
identify, distinguish, catalog, investigate, breakdown, order, recognize, determine

SYNTHESIS
Write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize, design,
build, systematize

EVALUATION
Evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check

Levels of Cognitive Domain (Benjamin Bloom):

1. Basic Knowledge: to recall and memorize

2. Comprehension: to translate from one form to another
3. Application : to apply or use information in a new situation
4. Analysis : to examine a concept and break it down into its parts
5. Synthesis : to put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a
problem
6. Evaluation : to make quantitative or qualitative judgments using standards
of appraisal

note: Generally, the first category – knowledge, is “information-oriented” as it stresses the

to recall existing knowledge. The other five (5) categories can be termed “process-oriented”
as they entail more sophisticated learner behaviours and competencies that require
increasing degrees of understanding.

Levels of Affective Objectives (David Krathwohl)

Krathwohl’s affective domain taxonomy is perhaps the best known of any of the
affective taxonomies. The taxonomy is ordered according to the principle of internalization.
Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s affect toward an object passes
from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is ‘internalized’ and consistently
guides or controls the person’s behavior.

1. Receiving – is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas,

material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples: to differentiate, to
accept, to listen (for), to respond to
2. Responding – is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or
phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples: to comply with, to follow, to
commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim
 3. Valuing – is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials,
and phenomena. Examples: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize,
to support, to debate.
4. Organization – is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a
harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples: to discuss, to theorize, to
formulate, to balance, to examine
5. Characterization by value or value set – is to act consistently in accordance
with the values he or she internalized. Examples: to revise, to require, to be rated high in
the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve.

Levels of Psychomotor Objectives (Anita Harrow)

1. Observing – active mental attending of a physical event. Examples: The learner

observes a more experienced person in his/her performance of the skill.
2. Imitating – attempted copying of a physical behavior. Example: The learner
follows directions and sequences under close supervision.
3. Practicing – trying a specific physical activity over and over. Example: The entire
sequence is performed repeatedly.
4. Adapting – fine tuning. Making minor adjustment in the physical activity in order
to perfect it. Example: Minor adjustments are made that influence the total performance.

Note: Psychomotor domain refers to the use of basic motor skills, coordination, and physical
movement. Bloom’s research group did not develop in-depth categories of this domain,
claiming lack of experience in teaching these skills.

D. Determining Methods

1. Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method

a. Objectives – the expected outcomes of the lesson

b. Subject Matter – refers to the substance of teaching
c. Learners – considers (nature, problems, needs, and interests) as the center of the
educational process
d. Educational Technology – includes programmed texts, TV programs, computer
software, audio-visual media, interactive – multimedia, and entire courses of
instruction tools and devices for the lesson
e. Time Allotment – refers to the amount of time available for the lesson
f. Teacher – the skills and preferences influence the appropriateness of teaching
methods to be used. S/he must have a clear understanding of the principles and
techniques involved. S/He should be familiar with the lesson. Effective teacher
adapts his/her teaching methods to his/her students.
g. School Environment – also refers to the community and society at large

2. Principles for Determining Method

a. The method must utilize the theory of self-activity.

b. The method must utilize the laws of learning.
c. The method must aid the learner in defining his own purposes by setting the
situation for the emergence of a desirable purpose.
d. The method must start from what is known already to the students
e. The method must be based on the accepted, well-integrated educational theory
and
practice which is designed to unify the work of teaching and learning
f. The method must provide the learners with numerous and diverse learning
experiences and activities.
g. The method must challenge and encourage the learner to further activities which
involve the process of differentiation and integration
h. The method must provide opportunity for the learner to ask and answer questions
i. The method to be used must be supplemented by other methods.

3. Types of Teaching Approaches

 a. Traditional/Direct Approach – is a teacher-centered/controlled; teacher
transmits
information directly to the student
 Deductive Method general to specific
 Demonstration Method – relies heavily upon showing the learners a model
performance
 Expository Method – exposition means telling, explaining. The steps are:
approach (establishing proper mind set), presentation (explanation by the
teacher), and application (in the form of test, creative work)
 Lecture Method – a teaching procedure for clarifying or explaining a major
idea cast in the form of question or problem. Predominantly teacher-directed
aimed at providing the needed information

b. Progressive/Indirect Approach – is learner-controlled; students search for

information
 Inductive Method – help pupils discover important rules or truth for
themselves through careful observations of specific cases or examples
leading to generalizations.
 Discovery Method - refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to learn
by observing and experiencing the lesson
 Problem-solving Method – this is an application of John Dewey’s reflective
thinking theory. This makes use of a problem as a nucleus which will make
pupils work toward its solution
 Project Method – a purposeful and constructive activity needing both
intellectual and physical solution.
 Conceptual Method – subject matter is taught to enable pupils to develop
concepts

c. Other Models/Teaching Strategies

 Metacognitive Teaching – learners are trained to become aware of and
exert control over their own learning using metacognitive proceses. (e.g. self-
evaluation, self-monitoring)
 Constructivist Approach to Education – learners use their own
experiences to create understanding that makes sense to them. Meaningful
learning occurs within authentic learning tasks
 Problem-based Instruction / Problem-based Learning - students are
actively involved in learning while investigating the problem, designing
strategies, and finding solutions
 Multiple Intelligences
 Reflective Teaching – learners learn from own experiences by considering
alternative interpretations o experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs
 Role Playing
 Panel
 Symposium
 Brainstorming
 Simulation
 Field trip
 Peer tutoring
 Distance Learning
 Cooperative Learning

E. Art of Questioning
 Uses
1. To stimulate pupils to think
2. To motivate pupils
3. To diagnose pupil’s difficulties
4. To discover pupil’s interest
5. To help pupils organize and evaluate
6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson
7. To focus pupils’ attention on the key points of the lesson
8. To develop new appreciations and attitudes
 9. To provide drill or practice
10. To show relationships, such as cause and effect
11. To encourage the application of concepts
12. To encourage pupil evaluation

 Characteristics of a Good Question

1. A good question is simple and clear
2. A good question is definite
3. A good question is challenging and thought-provoking
4. A good question is adapted to the age, abilities, and interests of the students
5. A good question requires an extended response

 Specific aspect of effective questioning

1. Questioning Frequency
Effective teachers ask more questions which result in high levels of student
involvement, which in turn increases motivation and achievement.

2. Equitable distribution
There are fewer discipline problems and higher achievement when students are
called on equally.

3. Sequencing
Ask questions first before identifying a student to answer.

4. Choral responding
Choral responses are effective for practicing skills, terms and facts that are
available for immediate recall.

5. Open-ended questions
These questions help develop student’s thinking skills and participation

6. Prompting
Having clear lesson goals in mind help teachers to give cue on the correct
answers.

7. Wait-time
Teachers give opportunity to their pupils to think when they pause and give time
for pupils to reflect on the question.

8. Student Questions
Giving students opportunity to raise questions in a non-threatening environment
encourages involvement and meaningful learning

 Types of Questions
1. According to thinking process involved
a. Low-level questions/knowledge – emphasize memory and recall of
information
b. High-level questions/comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis,
evaluation – go beyond memory and factual information and deal with
complex and abstract thinking

2. According to the type of answer required

a. Convergent questions – tend to have one correct answer; starts with
what,
who, when, and where questions
b. Divergent questions – are often open-ended and usually have many
appropriate , different answers. Usually starts with how and why questions

 Other types of questions

 a. Exploratory questions probe facts and basic knowledge
“What research evidence supports the theory of a cancer-prone
personality?”

b. Challenge questions examine assumptions, conclusions and

interpretations.
“How else might we account for the findings of this experiment?”

c. Relational questions ask for comparisons of themes, ideas or issues.

“What strong evidence against Flor Contemplation did the Singaporean
court used in deciding her guilt?”

d. Diagnostic questions probe motive or causes.

“Why did Peewee change his feelings at the end of the story?

e. Action questions call for a conclusion or action

“In response to Gancayco findings and recommendations, what should
President Ramos do?”

f. Cause and effect questions ask for causal relationship between ideas ,
actions or events.
“If the government stopped farm subsidies, what would happen to the
price of rice?”

g. Extension questions expand the discussion

“How does this relate to what we have previously said?”

h. Hypothetical questions pose a change in the facts or issue.

“Suppose Roland had been rich instead of poor, would the outcome
have been the same?”

i. Priority questions seek to identify the most important issue.

“From all we have talked about, what is the most important cause of
the decline of the Philippine economy?”

j. Summary questions elicit synthesis

“What lesson has emerged from today’s class?”

F. Determining Educational Technologies

 Purposes
1. motivating students
2. contributing to understanding
3. providing varied learning experiences
4. reinforcing learning
5. allowing for different interests
6. encouraging participation
7. providing experiences that might not otherwise be had
8. changing students and feelings

 Types
1. Text/Print
2. Still visuals
- printed visuals (pictures, graphics)
- displayed visuals (chalk board, bulletin board)
- projected visuals (OHP, DLP, LCD)
3. Real objects and models
4. Audio Technologies
5. Audio Visuals/Motion Pictures Media
6. Multimedia (CD ROM, Video discs) Computer and Internet

 Principles in the Selection and Utilization of Educational Technologies

1. meaningfulness
2. purpose
3. Appropriateness
4. breadth
5. usefulness/utility
6. communication effectiveness
 7. authenticity
8. responsiveness
9. interest
10. cost effectiveness
11. presentation
12. portability
13, correctness
14. simplicity
15. assessment

VI. Lesson Plan

Sets forth the proposed program or instructional activities for each day
A daily plan
A step-by-step approach to learning
Components/Elements:
A. Objectives – SMART
B. Subject Matter
 Topic/concept
 References
 Materials
C. Learning Activities
 Preparatory activities (drill/review, motivation)
 Developmental activities (presentation of the lesson, discussion)
 Concluding activities (generalization, application)
D. Evaluation
 Pose several thought-provoking questions that summarize previous learning
 Ask for a comparison of what has already been learned with what is being
learned
 Assign review questions
 Administer a short quiz
E. Assignment
 Should be interesting
 Should be directed to define concepts
 Provision should be made for individual differences
 Should be explained or examples should be given if necessary
 Should be monitored for completion or accuracy

VII. Classroom Management

A. Nature
 The administration or direction of activities with special reference to such
problems as discipline, democratic techniques, use and care of supplies and
reference materials, the physical features of the classroom, general
housekeeping, and the social relationships of pupils
 Includes operation and control of activities

B. Purposes
 To minimize the occurrences of discipline problems
 To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to constructive and
productive activity

C. Aspects
1. Lighting
Factors that influence provisions for good lighting facilities
 Size of the room
 Artificial light available
 Color of the walls, shades, location, and manipulation of blinds
 Location and size of the windows

2. Heat and ventilation

3. Materials of Instruction
4. Care of routine
Sample activities:
  Roll call
 Seating
 Handling materials and devices
 Classroom courtesies
 Responses to bell signals

Advantages:
 Insure economy of time and effort
 Prevents confusion
 Promotes learning activity

5. Discipline
 Proper conduct of pupil in the classroom

D. Approaches
1. Assertive Approach – expects teachers to specify rules of behavior and
consequences for disobeying them and to communicate these rules and
consequences clearly
Suggestions for teachers:
 Take positions.
 Use a firm tone of voice.
 Use eye contact, gestures and touches to supplemented verbal messages.
 Place demands on students and enforced them.
 Be calm and consistent.
 Follow through regularly.
 Establish position expectations for student behavior, eliminate negative
expectations about student.

2. Business-Academic Approach- emphasis the organization and management of

students as they engage n academic work
Categories:
 Clear communication of assignments and work requirements
a. Instruction for assignments
b. Standards for form, neatness, and due dates
c. Procedures for absent students
 Monitoring students work
a. Monitoring group and individual works
b. Monitoring completion of work
c. Monitoring records of student work
 Feedback to students
a. Attention to problems and good work

3. Behavioral Modification Approach- teachers strive to increase the occurrence

of appropriate behavior though a system of rewards and reduce the likelihood of
inappropriate behavior though punishments
Basic principles:
 Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforcers (positive or negative).
 Students respond better to positive reinforcers than they do not punishment.
 When a student is not rewarded for appropriate or adaptive behavior,
inappropriate or maladapted behavior may become increasingly dominant and
ill be utilized to obtain reinforcement.
 Constant reinforcement
 Intermittent reinforcement
 Rules are established and enforced

4. Group Managerial Approach – emphasizes the importance of responding

immediately to group student behavior that might be inappropriate or
undesirable in order to prevent problems than having to deal with them after they
merge
Categories:
 Desist techniques
a. “With-it-ness”
 b. Overlapping
 Movement management
a. Smoothness-Jerkiness
b. Momentum
 Group focus
a. Alerting
b. Accountability

5. Group Guidance Approach- is based on changing the surface behavior of the

students on a group basis
Group elements to be considered:
 Dissatisfaction with classroom work
 Poor interpersonal relations
 Disturbances in group climate
 Poor group organization
 Sudden changes and group emotions

6. Acceptance Approach-based the democratic model of teaching which allows

the students to participate in decisions and to make choices
Four mistaken goals:
 Attention getting
 Power seeking
 Revenge seeking
 Withdrawal

7. Success Approach- insists on the need to change the existing negative

classroom conditions and to improve conditions so they lead to student success
Suggestions:
 Stress students’ responsibility for their own behavior continually.
 Establish rules.
 Accept no excuses.
 Utilize value judgments.
 Suggest suitable alternatives.
 Enforce reasonable consequences.
 Be persistent.
 Continually review.

 Student Problem Types

1. Failure
2. Perfectionist
3. Underachiever
4. Low Achiever
5. Hostile Aggressive
6. Passive Aggressive
7. Defiant
8. Hyperactive
9. Distractible
10. Immature
11. Rejected by Peers
12. Withdrawn