Lesson 2

Outline
 Transducer

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Transducers

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 1. Introduction
• Usually an event cannot be measured
directly but causes an electrical or
physical signal, that is measured or
interpreted. This leads to the concept of
transduction of events and transducers.

Figure: block diagram of a transducer

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 Transducer
• In general terms, a transducer is a device that
converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy
form.
• A transducer converts one form of energy to
another form of energy. Usually a transducer is
considered to be a device that converts a given
form of energy to an electrical signal or vice
• A transducer is an electronic device that converts
energy from one form to another. The process of
converting energy from one form to another is known
as transduction. Some common examples of
transducers include loudspeakers, microphones,
thermometers and LEDs.
• Its working principle is generally based on detecting
an incoming form of energy and converting this
energy into another form or producing an output
signal.

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 Con..
 Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.

 The majority of Transducers either converts

electrical energy to mechanical displacement
or convert some non-electrical physical
quantity, such as temperature, sound, or light,
to an electrical signal.

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 Con..
A transducer is any device that converts energy from
one form to another. A microphone converts sound
into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts
electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to
electrical energy and vice versa).

Amplifier

Input transducer Output transducer

(microphone) converts (speaker) converts
sound energy to electrical electrical energy to
energy
[email protected]
sound energy #
 Why do we need a transducer?
• To determine the exact magnitude of physical
forces such as temperature and pressure is difficult.

• But, if these physical forces are converted into an

electrical signal, then their values can be easily
determined using a meter.

• The primary function of transducers is to convert a

physical force into an electrical signal so that it can
be easily handled and transmitted for measurement.
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Advantages of converting a physical quantity into an
electrical signal
• Here, we have listed the various advantages of converting
a physical quantity into an electrical signal:
• Electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for
measurement.
• Electrical signals process less friction error.
• Small power is needed to control the electrical systems.
• Amplification and attenuation of electrical signals are easy.
• The measuring instrument used for measuring the
electrical signal is very compact and accurate.
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 Con..
• An incandescent light bulb produces light
by passing a current through a filament.
Thus, a light bulb is a transducer for
converting electrical energy into optical
energy.

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 Con..
• An electric motor is a transducer for
conversion of electricity into mechanical
energy or motion.

• An actuator is a device that actuates or moves

something. An actuator uses energy to provide
motion. Therefore, an actuator is a specific
type of a transducer. Which of the previously
mentioned examples is an actuator?
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 Con..
•Sensors are input to transducers used for
detecting and often measuring the magnitude of
something.
•They convert mechanical, magnetic, thermal,
optical, and chemical variations into electric
voltages and currents.

Photoelectric
sensor

#
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 Con...
• In short, a transducer is a device which
converts one form of energy into another.
• An actuator is a device that converts
electrical energy into motion. Therefore, it
is a specific type of a transducer.
• When the output of the transducer is
converted to a readable format, the
transducer is called a sensor.
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• Transducer are the ones which converts one form of
energy to another . Sensors are the device which
detects some input from physical environment and
converts it into electrical signals. Eg: motion sensor ,
proximity sensor etc. Actuators are the devices which
performs action.
• A sensor is a device that detects the change in the
environment and responds to some output on the other
system. A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into
a measurable analog voltage (or sometimes a digital
signal) converted into a human-readable display or
transmitted for reading or further processing. 14
• A sensor tends to convert a physical attribute to an electrical
signal. An actuator does the opposite: it changes an electrical
signal to physical action.
• A sensor is defined as a device that receives a signal or
stimulus and responds to it by generating an electrical signal.
The output signals correspond to some forms of electrical
signal, such as current or voltage, which can be easily
measured.
• In engineering, actuators are frequently used as mechanisms
to introduce motion, or to clamp an object so as to prevent
motion. In electronic engineering, actuators are a subdivision
of transducers. They are devices which transform an input
signal (mainly an electrical signal) into some form of motion.
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• The actuator is the energy converter which converts the
power source energy into mechanical energy. The
mechanical load is the mechanical system being driven. The
controller is responsible of making the whole system follow
the reference set points established by an external system
operator.
• An actuator is a device that converts energy, which may be
electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, etc., to mechanical in such a
way that it can be controlled. The quantity and the nature of
input depend on the kind of energy to be converted and the
function of the actuator.
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Difference between Sensor and Actuator

SENSOR ACTUATOR

It is used to measure the

It is used to measure the
continuous and discrete
physical quantity.
process parameters.

It gives information to the

It accepts command to
system about
perform a function.
environment.

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Types of Sensors
• Position Sensors.
• Pressure Sensors.
• Temperature Sensors.
• Force Sensors.
• Vibration Sensors.
• Piezo Sensors.
• Fluid Property Sensors.
• Humidity Sensors.

Common examples of actuators include electric

motors, stepper motors, jackscrews, electric muscular
stimulators in robots, etc. 18
• Actuators are a component of a control system that
converts a control signal (usually electrical) into some
kind of mechanic motion. In a control system they
produce the controlling output of the system, whereas
sensors provide input to the system.
• Actuators are used in a wide range of applications,
including automotive systems (engine control,
suspension, braking), aerospace systems (flight control,
landing gear, engine control), industrial automation
(robotics, assembly lines, material handling), and
consumer products (appliances, electronic devices).
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 2. Basic Requirements of Transducer
• Ruggedness: ability to withstand overload and
protection measures.
• Repeatability: ability to produce same output for
same input at different times and environment.
• High stability & reliability: output should not be
affected by temperature, vibration, other
environmental conditions, with minimal error.

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 Con..
• Good dynamic response: ability to change output

quickly for dynamic variation in input with

respect to time.

• Good mechanical characteristics: ability to

withstand deformation and deterioration in

performance caused by various mechanical

strains.

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 Our definitions:
Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.
Transducer
• A device that converts energy of one form into energy of another
form.
Actuator
• A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action
Stimulus
• The quantity that is sensed.
• Sometimes called the measurand.
 3. Classification of Transducers
• There are several ways in which you can
classify transducers. Let us see the
classification of transducers based on the
following three ways:
• Physical Effect

• Physical Quantity

• Source of Energy
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 i. Classification based on physical effect

• The physical quantity applied as

measurand (quantity to be measured) to
the transducer causes some physical
changes in its element. By this physical
effect the transducer converts the
physical quantity in to electrical quantity.

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 Con..
The physical effects commonly employed are
• Variation of resistance
• Variation of inductance
• Variation of capacitance
• Piezo electric effect
• Magnetostrictive effect
• Elastic effect
• Hall effect

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 Con..
a. Variation of resistance
The resistance of a length of metallic wire is
given by

Where, R = Resistance in Ω.
r =Resistivity (or specific resistance) of the
material in Ω-m.
l = length of wire in m.
a= Area of cross-section in m2.
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 Con..
• As resistance is a function of ρ, l , a (i.
e) R = f (ρ, l, a) , with any change in
anyone of the physical quantities ρ, a
or l causes variation in resistance, a
variable resistance transducer can be
designed to convert physical quantity.

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• Some of the transducers based on this principle are
potentiometer (a three-terminal electrical component
that can be used as a voltage divider or variable
resistor.), strain gauge(devices that are used to
measure the effect of external forces on an object.
They measure strain directly, which can be used to
indirectly determine stress, torque, pressure,
deflection, and many other measurements.),
resistance thermometer (also called resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to
measure temperature.) 29
 Con..
• The resistance thermometer is based upon thermo
resistive effect which is the change in electrical
resistivity of a metal or semiconductor due to
change in temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
• Potentiometer works on the principle of change in
resistance due to linear or rotational motion.
• Strain gauge works on the principle of change in
resistance due to applied pressure.

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 b. Variation of inductance
• The inductance of a coil is given by

where, L = inductance in henry

N = No., of turns
μo= absolute permeability
μr = relative permeability
A= area of cross section of the core
l= length of magnetic path
dφ/dt= rate of change of magnetic flux.
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 Con..
• As L is a function, of N, μr , A, l , (i.e) L = f (N,
μr ,A, l ), when anyone of these quantities
changes, the inductance changes.
• This leads to the design of a variable
inductance transducer.
• Some of the transducers based on variation
of inductance are induction potentiometer,
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
and synchros.
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 C. Variation of capacitance
• Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel
metal plates in which the dielectric between
the plates is either air or some other medium.
The capacitance between two conductor
plates is given by
C = capacitance in farad
ɛo = absolute permittivity
ɛr = relative permittivity of the
separating medium
A = area of cross-section of the
plates
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 Con..
• As C is a function of ɛr , A,d i.e C = ( ɛr, A, d )
when anyone of these quantities changes,
the capacitance varies. This leads to the
design of a variable capacitance transducer.
• Capacitive can be used as displacement
sensors and also form part of instruments
measuring pressure, sound, or acceleration.

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 Con..
• In the alternative form of capacitor, the
distance between the plates is fixed.
• Variation in capacitance is achieved by
changing the dielectric constant of the
material between the plates in some way.
• This principle is used in devices to measure
moisture content, humidity values, and
liquid level, as discussed in later chapters.

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 d. Piezoelectric effect
• Certain materials (piezoelectric materials) tend to
accumulate electric charges when a mechanical
stress is applied to them. The piezoelectric effect is
an effect that simply describes the fact that a
pressure applied to a piezoelectric material will
generate a voltage.

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 Con..

• For a rectangular block of material, the induced

voltage is given by:

• where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the

material in mm, d is the thickness of the material,
and k is the piezoelectric constant.

• Creates ultrasonic waves for imaging purposes.

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 e. Magnetostrictive effect
• When a magnetic material is subjected to
mechanical stress, its permeability changes. This
effect is magnetostrictive effect and the
transducer based on this effect is magnetostrictive
transducer.
• Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena
of inductance, reluctance, and eddy currents to
indicate the value of the measured quantity, which
is usually some form of displacement. 38
 Con..

• More examples include

• f. Elastic effect
• g. Hall effect

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 2. Classification based on Physical
Quantity
• The second classification of Transducers is based
on the physical quantity converted i.e. the end use
of the transducer after the conversion.
• For example, a Pressure Transducer is a
transducer that converts pressure into electrical
signal.
• Following is small list of transducers classified
based on the physical quantity and corresponding
examples
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 Con..
• Temperature Transducer –→ Thermocouple
• Pressure Transducer –→ Bourdon Gauge
• Displacement Transducer –→ LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transformer)
• Level Transducer –→ Torque Tube
• Flow Transducer –→ Flow Meter
• Force Transducer –→ Dynamometer
• Acceleration Transducer –→ Accelerometer
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 3. Classification based on Source of
Energy
• Transducers are also classified based on the source
of energy. Under this category, there are usually two
types of transducers:
• Active Transducers
• Passive Transducers

Figure 1.1 Active and passive transducers 42

 Passive transducer
• Passive transducers are those which need an auxiliary power source
to produce output.
• Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e resistance, inductance
or capacitance changes with the change in input signal, are called
the passive transducers.
• These transducers require external power source for energy
conversion. In such transducers electrical parameters i.e resistance,
inductance or capacitance causes a change in voltage ,current or
frequency of the external power source.
• For example resistive capacitive inductive transducers.

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 Active Transducer
• An active transducer is a sort of transducer device
that does not require an external power supply to
provide output and is capable of converting
physical impulses into electric powered signals on
its own.
• Active transducers are those which don’t need
auxiliary power source to produce output.
• The energy required for production of output signal
is obtained from physical quantity being measured.
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 More examples
Electrochemical transducers
• pH probe → Converts chemical energy into an
electrical energy
• Molecular electric transducer → Converts motion in
an electrolytic solution into electrical energy
• Battery → Converts chemical energy directly into
electrical energy
• Fuel cell → Converts the energy from a reaction
within a fuel cell to electrical energy
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 Con..
Common electroacoustic transducers:
Loudspeaker→ Converts an electrical
signal into sound
Microphone→ Converts sound waves in air
into an electrical signal
Hydrophone→ Converts sound waves in
water into an electrical signal.
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 Con..
Common electromagnetic transducers:
Magnetic cartridge→ Converts motion in a magnetic
field into an electrical energy
Generator→ Converts motion in a magnetic field into
electrical energy

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 Con..
Electromechanical Transducers
• Electromechanical Transducers →(Some are
also called actuators)
• Strain gauge→ Converts the deformation (strain)
of an object into electrical resistance
• Galvanometer→ Converts the electric current of
a coil in a magnetic field into movement
• Generators→ Converts mechanical energy
(motion) into electrical energy.
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 Con..
• Motor→ Converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy (graphic below)

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 Photoelectric Transducers
• Cathode ray tube (CRT): Converts electrical
signals into light energy for a visual output

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 Con..
• Light bulb: Converts electrical energy into visible
light and heat

• Laser diode: Converts electrical energy into light

energy
• Photodiode: Converts light energy into electrical
energy

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 Classification of Sensors
and Actuators
• Based on physical laws
• Based on any convenient distinguishing property
• Possible to a certain extent - some devices defy
classification
1. Active and Passive sensors
2. Contact and non-contact sensors
3. Absolute and relative sensors
4. Other schemes
 1. Active and passive sensors
Active sensor: a sensor that requires external power to operate.
Examples: the carbon microphone, thermistors, strain gauges,
capacitive and inductive sensors, etc.
Other name: parametric sensors (output is a function of a
parameter - like resistance)
Passive sensor: generates its own electric signal and does not
require a power source. Examples: thermocouples, magnetic
microphones, piezoelectric sensors.
Other name: self-generating sensors
Note: some define these exactly the other way around
 2. Contact and noncontact
sensors
Contact sensor: a sensor that requires physical
contact with the stimulus. Examples: strain gauges,
most temperature sensors

Non-contact sensor: requires no physical contact.

Examples: most optical and magnetic sensors,
infrared thermometers, etc.
 3. Absolute and relative sensors
Absolute sensor: a sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an
absolute scale: Thermistors, strain gauges, etc.,
(thermistor will always read the absolute temperature)

Relative scale: The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or

variable reference. Thermocouple measures the
temperature difference, pressure is often measured
relative to atmospheric pressure.
 4. Other schemes
Classification by broad area of detection
• Electric sensors
• Magnetic
• Electromagnetic
• Acoustic
• Chemical
• Optical
• Heat, Temperature
• Mechanical
• Radiation
• Biological
• Etc.
 4. Other schemes (cont.)
Classification by physical law
• Photoelectric

• Magnetoelectric

• Thermoelectric

• Photoconductive

• Magnitostrictive

• Electrostrictive

• Photomagnetic

• Thermoelastic

• Thermomagnetic

• Thermooptic

• Electrochermical

• Magnetoresistive

• Photoelastic

• Etc.
4. Other schemes (cont.)
Classification by specifications
• Accuracy
• Sensitivity
• Stability
• Response time
• Hysteresis
• Frequency response
• Input (stimulus) range
• Resolution
• Linearity
• Hardness (to environmental conditions, etc.)
• Cost
• Size, weight,
• Construction materials
• Operating temperature
• Etc.
 4. Other schemes (cont.)
Classification by area of application
• Consumer products
• Military applications
• Infrastructure
• Energy
• Heat
• Manufacturing
• Transportation
• Automotive
• Avionic
• Marine
• Space
• Scientific
• Etc.
Classification of actuators

• Low power actuators

• High power actuators

• Micropower actuators

• Etc.
Classification of actuators
All of the above
In addition:
Classification of actuators by type of motion
• Linear
• Rotary
• One-axis
• Two-axes
• Three-axes
• Etc.
 Application of transducers:
• In the real world everywhere we required transducer. So we
can say more or less all electronic devices can’t complete
without transducer. Some examples of transducers are
given below.
 In our mobile phone. Microphones, Speakers and touch
screens.
 In our Computer Mouse optical sensor/ transducer is
available.
 In our Clock Piezo Crystal is working.
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 In our Computer Hard Disk Magnetic Sensor is installed.
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