ARCHIVES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING VOL. 73(2), pp.

265 –279 (2024)

DOI 10.24425/aee.2024.149916

Influence of element’s parameters on the output

characteristics of the voltage multiplier when powered
from the inverter in resonance conditions

JAN MUĆKOo B

Faculty of Telecommunications, Computer Science and Electrical Engineering

Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology
Al. prof. S. Kaliskiego 7, 85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland
e-mail: B [email protected]

(Received: 08.10.2024, revised: 17.04.2024)

Abstract: The article presents the influence of the parameters of the high voltage direct
current (HVDC) generator with a multiplier, such as: leakage inductance of the high voltage
(HV) transformer, capacitance, and the number of multiplier stages on the value of the output
voltage, voltage ripple, power and frequency of the supply voltage as a function of the output
current. The presented characteristics were obtained under the synchronization conditions
of the inverter output voltage and current that powers the multiplier. The presented results
will be useful when designing HVDC generators with Cockcroft-Walton multipliers.
Key words: high DC voltage generator, output characteristics, resonant inverter, voltage
multiplier

1. Introduction

Voltage multipliers have many applications [1]. They are used to generate high DC voltage.
They were very popular in CRT TVs and oscilloscopes. Currently, they can be found in, e.g.
electrostatic spraying systems (powder coating, spraying of plant protection products), electrostatic
segregation of materials [2], X-ray tube power supplies [3], systems for obtaining electricity from
the electromagnetic field that surrounds us [4–6]. These are usually low power devices. In the case
of designing multipliers with higher power (of the order of hundreds W and kW), it is necessary to
analyze the impact of the power supply conditions and the parameters of the used elements on
multiplier output characteristics. In the case of powering the multiplier from the inverter, through

© 2024. The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
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266 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

the HV transformer, resonance phenomena occur. These phenomena have been described, e.g. in
works [7, 8]. [8] shows that the most advantageous, due to the stiffness of the output characteristics,
is switching the inverter’s transistors in the moments when the current supplying the multiplier
changes direction. The voltage and current supplying the multiplier are then synchronized.
This article presents the influence of the values of parameters such as: the leakage inductance
of the HV transformer, capacitor capacitance and number of multiplier stages on the value of the
multiplier output voltage, output voltage ripple, frequency of the supply voltage as a function of
the output current. The synchronization of the output voltage and current of the inverter will be
maintained – the Load-Adaptive Frequency Modulation (LA-FM) was applied.
The presented results will be useful in the design of voltage multiplier powered by an inverter
via an HV transformer. The motivation to study the impact of the element’s parameters on
the characteristics of the multiplier was the earlier design and construction, of two multipliers
with rated powers of 60 and 160 W and an output voltage of 40 kV [8], used in sputtering and
electrostatic separation devices [2]. The results presented in this article were obtained by means of
a computer simulation (in LTSpice).

2. Phenomena occurring in the voltage multiplier when the supply voltage

and current are synchronized
Figure 1 shows the structures of a multiplier with a multiplication factor n equal to 2, 4 and 8.

Fig. 1. A simplified scheme of voltage multiplier supplied by an inverter with an HV transformer (referred
to the secondary side of the transformer): voltage doubler, n = 2 (a); voltage multiplier, n = 4 (b); voltage
multiplier, n = 8 (c)

Figure 2 shows the waveforms of currents and voltages in these systems when supplied from
a voltage inverter through a high-voltage transformer: input current and voltage of the voltage
multiplier (iV1 , uV1 ), multiplier output voltage and current (uRload , iRload ), capacitor currents
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 267

(iC1, . . . , iC8 ) and diode currents (iD1, . . . , iD8 ). It was assumed that the transistors are switched
at the moments when the output current of the inverter is equal to zero (or close to them). This
guarantees switching at zero current (ZCS) or switching at zero voltage (ZVS) and at the same
time almost ZCS, which in real systems results in a practical reduction of commutation losses.

Fig. 2. Waveforms of currents and voltages in the voltage doubler system supplied by an inverter with an HV
transformer (referred to the secondary side of the transformer): n = 2, C = 1 nF, L = 0.5 H, Rload = 20 MΩ,
fs = 7.6 kHz, P = 5 W

For the simplest voltage doubler (Figs. 1(a), 2), it is impossible to synchronize the switching
with positive and negative half-waves of the current at the same time (when the supply voltage is
in the form of half-period positive and half-period negative rectangular pulses). This is due to
different durations of the current half-waves. The duration of the negative half-wave of the current
is about 40% longer than the duration of the positive half-wave.
This is because during the negative half-wave the resonant circuit consists of the leakage
inductance of the transformer and one capacitor. However, in the positive half-wave the leakage
inductance and two capacitors are connected in series. With higher multiplication factor values, these
differences decrease (Figs. 3, 4) and, for example, for n = 8 (Fig. 4) they are practically negligible.
In this article, we will deal with cases where n > 2 and fs ≈ ffo , where fs is the switching
frequency of the transistors and ffo is the free oscillation (natural) frequency. The maximum output
power is obtained when the inverter is operating at the natural frequency of the system [8]. These
cases ensure the minimization of transistor currents at the assumed output power. It is optimal from
the point of view of power losses during conduction and switching. The natural frequency of the
system depends on the capacity of the multiplier capacitors, the transformer’s leakage inductances,
multiplication factor and it is a function of the load. Load-Adaptive Frequency Modulation is
required to ensure the synchronization. Power regulation is possible by changing the inverter
supply voltage (amplitude modulation, AM) or pulse density modulation (PDM).
268 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

Fig. 3. Waveforms of currents and voltages in the voltage multiplier system supplied by an inverter with an HV
transformer (referred to the secondary side of the transformer): n = 4, C = 1 nF, L = 0.5 H, Rload = 20 MΩ,
fs = 11 kHz, P = 20 W

During one period of the inverter operation for the multiplier from Fig. 1(a) (voltage doubler,
n = 2), 2-time intervals can be distinguished (Fig. 2). In these intervals the equivalent resonant
capacity CR connected in series with the transformer leakage inductances are: CR = C/2 (for the
positive half-wave of current) and CR = C/1 (for the negative current half-wave).
During one period of the inverter operation for the multiplier from Fig. 1(b) (multiplication
factor n = 4), 4-time intervals can be distinguished (Fig. 3). In these intervals the equivalent
resonant capacity CR connected in series with the transformer leakage inductances are: CR = C/4,
C/2 (for the positive half-wave of current) and CR = C/3, C/1 (for the negative half-wave of
current).
Similarly, for a multiplier consisting of 8 capacitors and 8 diodes (Fig. 1(c)), there were 8-time
intervals in which the equivalent capacities were [8]: CR = C/8, C/6, C/4, C/2 for the positive
half-wave of current and CR = C/7, C/5, C/3, C/1 for the negative half-wave of current.
During the work cycle, the transformer’s leakage inductances are connected in series with
capacitors ranging from 1 to n. Therefore, the free oscillation frequency of the system is described
by inequality (1) [8]:

1 1
√ < ffo < p . (1)
2π LC 2π LC/n
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 269

Fig. 4. Waveforms of currents and voltages in the voltage multiplier system supplied by an inverter with an HV
transformer (referred to the secondary side of the transformer): n = 8, C = 1 nF, L = 0.5 H, Rload = 20 MΩ,
fs = 14.7 kHz, P = 80 W

When operating without load, the output voltage of the multiplier is given in Eq. (2):
URload (I = 0) = |Uinv | · ϑ · n = |UV1 | · n, (2)
where: Uinv = ±Ud /2 for the half-bridge inverter or Uinv = ±Ud for the full bridge inverter, Ud is
the inverter input voltage, UV1 is the inverter voltage seen at the transformer secondary side, ϑ is
the transformer ratio.
Assuming no active losses and approximate sinusoidal shape of the supplying current (Fig. 4),
the RMS value of inverter current (in the primary side of the transformer) is given in Eq. (3):
√ 
Iinv rms ≈ 2π/4 · ϑ · n · IRload . (3)

The free oscillation frequency and output voltage as a function of the load will be determined
by simulation and presented in the next chapter.
270 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

3. Characteristics of the voltage multiplier

Figure 5 shows the values of voltages, free oscillation frequency and equivalent capacitance of
the whole system presented in Fig. 1(c), as a function of the output current of the multiplier. The
simulation has been performed for the following data: n = 8, C = 1 nF, L = 0.5 H.

Fig. 5. Values of voltages, free oscillation frequency and equivalent capacitance of the system as a function
of the output current of the multiplier; n = 8, C = 1 nF, L = 0.5 H

Umax and Umin are the instantaneous maximum and minimum values of the output voltage
for a given load current (Fig. 4). UAV is the average value of the output voltage. ffo is the free
oscillations frequency and CE is the equivalent resonant capacitance of the system resulting from
ffo and transformer leakage inductance. CE is described by Eq. (4):

1
CE = . (4)
L(2π ffo )2

The characteristics of the multiplier average output voltage and the ripple of this voltage
(peak – peak, Up−p = Umax − Umin ) as a function of the load current of the voltage multiplier are
shown also in Figs. 6 and 7. These characteristics were obtained for the assumed capacitances
and leakage inductances C1 = . . . = C8 = C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF, L = 0.5 H for Fig. 6 and
C1 = . . . = C8 = C = 1 nF, L = 0.5; 1; 2.5; 5 H for Fig. 7.
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 271

Fig. 6. Characteristics of average voltage UAV and ripple voltage Up−p as a function of average load current
IAV for C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF, L = 0.5 H

Fig. 7. Characteristics of average voltage UAV and ripple voltage Up−p as a function of average load current
IAV for C = 1 nF, L = 0.5; 1; 2.5; 5 H
272 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

In order to generalize the description of the phenomena occurring in the system, reference
values were introduced and characteristics in relative values were presented. As reference values
were adopted according to Eq. (5):
Uref = URload (IAV = 0) = |UV1 | · n,
p
Zref = n2 L/C,
Cref = C,
fref = ffo (IAV = 0) , (5)
Uref
Iref = ,
Zref
Pref = Uref · Iref .
For such reference values, dimensionless values of voltage, currents and power are expressed
using Eq. (6):
UAV CE ffo IAV P
∗
UAV = , CE∗ = , f∗ = , ∗
IAV = , P∗ = . (6)
Uref Cref fref Iref Pref
The characteristics of the dimensionless: multiplier average output voltage UAV ∗ , the ripple of

this voltage (peak – peak, Up−p = Umax − Umin ), the power P , the frequency f of the inverter
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

voltage during synchronization and the equivalent capacity CE∗ of the whole system as a function
of the dimensionless load current are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. These characteristics were obtained
(as before) for the assumed capacitances and inductances:
1) C1 = . . . = C8 = C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF, L = 0.5 H and
2) C1 = . . . = C8 = C = 1 nF, L = 0.5; 1; 2.5, 5 H.
Figures 8 and 9 show two regions of the system operation, for the relative load current smaller
than 1 and greater than 1, respectively. These regions are characterized by different behaviors in
the variations of multiplier output voltage, power and voltage ripple, oscillation frequency and the
equivalent capacity. In the second region, for a relative current greater than 1, the discharge of
even-numbered capacitors with the load current is so intense that the voltages of these capacitors
decrease. If the voltage of one of these capacitors becomes negative, the diodes connected in
parallel to this capacitor switch to conduction. This capacitor is short-circuited by these diodes
and the voltage across it is close to zero. For example, the capacitor C8 is then short-circuited
by two simultaneously conducting diodes D7 and D8 . Short-circuiting a given capacitor through
diodes eliminates this capacitor from the resonant circuit, changing both the structure of the circuit
and the frequency of natural oscillations. Eliminating the capacitor reduces the number of time
intervals in the oscillation period. In this case, for a relative current greater than 1, the current and
voltage waveforms in the system are different than those shown in Figs. 2–4. In the event of a short
circuit at the multiplier output, only the capacitor C1 is a capacitive element of the resonant circuit.
During the simulation, it was assumed that: rectifier diodes are ideal, the transformer winding
resistance was omitted, a 20 MΩ resistor was connected in parallel to each diode, which in the real
systems symmetrized the voltages on each of the capacitors, causing the multiplier to be initially
loaded with a resistance of 160 MΩ. The default values of the simulation control parameters were
adopted as in the Control panel/Spice program window. Additionally, a Maximum Timestep of
0.01 µs was assumed.
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 273

Fig. 8. Characteristics of the relative values of: multiplier average output voltage UAV ∗ , the ripple of this
∗ ∗
voltage Up−p , the power P during synchronization inverter voltage and current as a function of the relative
values of load current for: 1) C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF, L = 0.5 H and 2) C = 1 nF, L = 0.5; 1; 2.5; 5 H; (these
points marked with black circles are the result of an experimental test - see chapter 4)

Fig. 9. Characteristics of the relative values of: the multiplier swiching frequency f ∗ and the equivalent
capacity C∗E of the whole system during synchronization as a function of the relative values of load current
for: 1) C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF, L = 0.5 H and 2) C = 1 nF, L = 0.5; 1; 2.5; 5 H
274 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

4. Experimental setup used for electrostatic segregation

The prototype multiplier system with a multiplication factor n = 8 (without electrical insulating
compound) is shown in Fig. 10(a). The printed circuit board (PCB) has been designed so that it is
possible to make a multiplier with a maximum factor of n = 10. The circuit diagram including
real components is in Fig. 10(b). DD1600 diodes with a maximum reverse voltage of 16 kV were
used to build the multiplier. The CC10k-2N2 capacitors were used with a capacity of 2.2 nF and a
maximum voltage of 10 kV. Each capacitor shown in the simplified diagram in Fig. 1 consists
of two CC10k-2N2 capacitors connected in series, with a resultant capacity of 1.1 nF. In order
to ensure an even division of the capacitor voltage, high-voltage 62 MΩ 1 W 10 kV resistors
are connected in parallel to each capacitor. The multiplier output is additionally equipped with
resistors that limit the current in the event of a short circuit at the output, e.g. when an arc discharge
occurs. The voltage oversizing of the elements was intentional so that the system could operate in
a wider voltage range in the future. Oversizing also ensured greater durability of the elements.
The HV transformer was built using a UY16-5857 core made of PC40 ferrite. The turns ratio ϑ
was approximately 31, which made it possible to obtain a voltage in the range of 0–5 kV on the
secondary side when powered by a half-bridge inverter with an input voltage of approximately
0–320 V. The leakage inductance and winding resistance seen from the secondary side of the
transformer were 1.105 H and 1354 Ω, respectively. The inductance measured from the secondary
side (when the primary winding was open) was 11.67 H. Measurements were made with CHY41R
and BM857 multimeters. The tests were initially carried out with reduced supply voltage and a
multiplier without a silicone electrical insulating compound. This made it possible to measure
voltages and currents while maintaining safety.

Fig. 10. View of the printed circuit board and high-voltage transformer (a) of the multiplier prototype with
a factor of n = 8 and a schematic diagram (b) with marked places of connecting measuring devices; all
resistors, unless otherwise noted, are 62 MΩ
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 275

The current was recorded using an oscilloscope (SDS1052DL) only in places where the voltage
relative to the earth potential was not high (Fig. 10(b)). The inverter output voltage, applied to the
primary winding of the HV transformer, was also recorded using an oscilloscope. For oscilloscope
measurements, a Rogowski current probe (CWTUM/1/B) and a separation differential probe
(TT-SI9001) were used. Measurements of the average value of the output voltage were made using
the HV probe (HVP-40) and the BM257s multimeter. Example oscillograms showing current and
voltage waveforms in the system during tests at reduced voltage are shown in Fig. 11. Figure 12
shows the simulation results of the system with the parameters of the elements used in the tests. It
was assumed that uinv = uV1 /ϑ and iinv = iV1 ∗ ϑ, where uinv , iinv are the voltage and current of the
inverter (Fig. 10(b)) and uV1 , iV1 are the voltage and current of the source in the equivalent diagram
(as in Fig. 1). Figure 12(a) shows the results when using a simplified transformer model, taking
into account only leakage inductance and winding resistance (as in Fig. 1). Figure 12(b) shows the
results when also taking into account the main inductance (equivalent transformer diagram of
a T-type) and the winding capacitance (approx. 18 pF) viewed from the secondary side. In both
cases, the shapes of the current and voltage waveforms obtained by simulation were similar to the
waveforms from the oscillograms. This was the basis for assuming that the characteristics obtained
by simulation were close to the real ones. Taking into account the magnetization inductance and
winding capacitance (Fig. 12(b)) obviously gave more accurate waveforms. When simulating the
system with elements as in Fig. 10(b), the characteristics of the diodes were approximated by
semi-straight lines where the threshold voltage UF = 5 V and the dynamic resistance rF = 10 Ω.
Other control parameters of the simulation were default when Maximum Timestep was 0.01 µs.
Reference values calculated according to Eq. (5) for the test system and the transformer primary
side voltage of 32.8 V were:
Uref = 32.8 · 31 · 8 ≈ 8.13 kV,
Zref = (8)2 · (1.105/1.1e − 9)1/2 ≈ 2.03 MΩ,
fref ≈ 9.8 kHz,
Iref = Uref /Zref ≈ 4.01 mA,
Pref ≈ 33 W.
The measured multiplier output voltage was 7.98 kV. The relative values of voltage, current
and power at the multiplier output were:
UAV∗ ≈ 7.98 kV/8.13 kV ≈ 0.982,

IAV = (7.98 kV/8.1 MΩ)/4.01 mA ≈ 0.246,

∗

P∗ ≈ 7.86/33 ≈ 0.238.
The experimentally determined relative values of voltage and power lie on the characteristics
determined by simulation (Fig. 8, points marked with a black circles).
For industrial use, to operate at full voltage, the multiplier had to be placed in an electrical
insulating compound. The devices for electrostatic sputtering (40 kV, 60 W) and electrostatic
segregation [2, 8] of plastics or plastics and metal chips (40 kV, 160 W) were designed and tested.
This system was made for the Institute of Polymer Materials and Dyes Engineering (IMPIB) in
Toruń. Operational tests confirmed its correct operation. As a result of the tests, it was confirmed
that the highest rigidity of the external (current-voltage) characteristic is obtained if the inverter
transistors are switched synchronously with the wave of the current supplying the multiplier. It
was also noticed that above a certain value of the output current of the multiplier, the external
characteristic decreases much faster. All these observations confirmed the results of the simulation
studies presented in this article.
276 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

Fig. 11. Current and voltage waveforms in the system during tests at reduced voltage: 1 – uinv , 2 – iinv ,
3 – iTr sec , 4 – iC2

(a) (b)
Fig. 12. Current and voltage waveforms in the system obtained by simulation for data as in the test:
(a) for a simplified transformer model; (b) T-type transformer model with additional winding capacity
taken into account

The block diagram of the power supply and control system of the industrially applied voltage
multiplier is shown in Fig. 13. This figure also shows the idea of electrostatic segregation of
various plastics or metal and plastics chips. Figure 14 shows a photo of the converter whose
block diagram is shown in Fig. 13. The view of the voltage multiplier (in an electrical insulating
compound) of the 160 W 40 kV system used to electrostatic segregation is presented in Fig. 15.
Vol. 73 (2024) Influence of element’s parameters on the output characteristics 277

Fig. 13. The block diagram of the power supply and control system of the tested voltage multiplier used for
electrostatic segregation of various plastics and matal chips

Fig. 14. The view of the inverter Fig. 15. The view of the voltage multiplier and
of the 160 W 40 kV used for HV transformer of the 160 W 4 kV system used for
electrostatic segregation [8] electrostatic segregation [8]

5. Conclusions

The presented simulation studies show that for the assumed inductance values L = 0.5; 1; 2.5; 5 H
and constant capacitance C = 1 nF, practically the same characteristics were obtained in relative
values. Similar simulation studies were carried out for a constant value of inductance L = 0.5 H
and capacitance C = 0.1; 0.25; 0.5; 1 nF. Regardless of changes of L or C, the characteristics of
the system in relative values are the same.
1. Appropriately selected reference values allow one to present the characteristics of the
multiplier in relative values, regardless of the parameters of its components.
278 J. Mućko Arch. Elect. Eng.

2. For a relative load current less than 1, the following can be observed:
∗ = f (I ∗ ) characteristic of the multiplier output voltage decreases slightly for the
– the UAV AV
inverter operation frequency equal to free (natural) oscillation frequency of the multiplier
system (at Load-Adaptive Frequency Modulation),
∗ are proportional to the load current I ∗ , if I ∗ = 1
– the power P∗ and voltage ripple Up−p AV AV
∗
then P is close to 1,
– the free oscillation frequency f ∗ = const = 1 and the equivalent capacity CE∗ = const.
3. For a relative load current greater than 1, the following can be observed:
∗ = f (I ∗ ) characteristic of the multiplier output voltage decreases quite quickly,
– the UAV AV
– the power P∗ grows slower and the voltage ripple Up−p
∗ is constant,

– the free oscillation frequency of the system decreases and the equivalent capacity increases,
in the event of a short circuit on the output, the equivalent capacitance CE∗ is close to 1.
4. The conducted research will greatly facilitate the process of designing voltage multipliers in
which the inverter output voltage and current are synchronized and resonance phenomena
are used. In the initial design phase, the relative output current should be determined. Then,
based on the characteristics from Figs. 8 and 9, it will be possible to determine without
additional simulations and calculations whether the external characteristics will be stiff,
whether the frequency of natural oscillations will be constant and what will be the ripples.
If the relative load current in the entire operating range is less than 1, then the frequency
of natural oscillations will be practically constant. It will then be possible to use constant
frequency switching of transistors instead of Load-Adaptive Frequency Modulation. This
will simplify the design of the inverter.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the employees of the Institute of Polymer Materials and Dyes Engineering
(IMPIB) in Toruń for their help during tests of the voltage multiplier at the stand [2] for electrostatic
segregation.

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