WHAT IS A WEED?

A weed is a plant that causes economic losses or damages to viable crops and
creates health problems for humans, animals and is undesirable where it is
growing.
NOXIOUS WEED:- Any plant that is injurious to public health, wildlife, and or
agriculture.
INVASIVE WEED:- weeds that establish, persist and spread widely in any natural
ecosystem outside the plant’s native range. When in a foreign environment, the
invasive normally lack enemies to curtail their growth. That is, no other weeds can
affect or hinder their growth. They will eventually over run the natural species
living there. For instance if you took a weed that is native to Georgetown and
planted it in Lethem then no other weeds grown there will suppress it. Thus, it
will grow without a doubt.
How to prevent weeds from becoming a problem:
The best strategy is prevention.
1. Never let them seed:- This is the #1 rule with weeds. Some varieties
produce tens of thousands of seeds from a single plant, multiplying your
weed control problems for years to come. So make certain you remove
weeds before they flower and produce seeds.
2. Weed early, when the weeds are young. Inspect your garden daily. Pull out
weeds regularly.
3. Clean tools when you move from one area of the garden to another to avoid
spreading weed seeds.
4. Be careful when buying materials from garden centers. Ask for weed-free mulch,
manure, compost, and soil.
5. In the dry season breakup the top soil then cover it with plastic.
6. Only water the intended crop and not the grass.

7. Spray with appropriate chemicals.

8. Plant cover crop that will prevent sunlight and moisture from getting to the
soil.
When choosing grass species one must know the type of planting materials and
the economic value of that species. The forage selected should be high yielding,
provide viable seeds for reproduction, and must be persistent in growth. In the
Caribbean, pangola is the best grazing grass.

Reasons for the survival of weeds

Weeds have a wide adaptation. They can survive harsh conditions.

Weeds have modified parts that help them survive, for example the stem or leaf
can reproduce and continue to grow once air, moisture, temperature and sunlight
are present. Some may also survive even if all those conditions are not present.

Weeds spread by animals, air and sexual reproduction.

Weeds produce a large number of seeds making them easy to spread.

HOW WEEDS ARE SPREAD

Seeds, manure applied, irrigation water, equipment used, man carry on his
clothing and some root tubers.

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL:

1 mechanical such as hand pulling of weeds, hoeing, burning, brush cutting,

forking, ploughing and so on.

2 Cultural method such as mulching, crop rotation

3 Biological: the use of parasites to feed on weeds.

4 Chemical method: The use of weedicides or herbicides.

Weedicides: These can be selective or non- selective

Selective weedicides are those that kill selected weeds and leave others.

Non-selective weedicides are those that kill everything once sprayed.

There are also contact weedicides that act on the leaves and destroy the
chlorophyll in those leaves.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WEEDS

Weeds compete with cultivated crops for nutrients, sunlight, air and moisture.

Weeds harbor pests and diseases that attack crop plants.

Some weeds are parasitic to plants such as love vine.

Pasture grasses that are used as forage are:-

PANGOLA: This grass does not require mowing, can graze low, a good drought
resistant species and requires heavy nitrogen.

ELEPHANTGRASS: This is a cutting grass, respond to nitrogen, has deep root and
has many stems and leaves

GUINEA GRASS: This is a cutting pasture grass, produces many seeds but has poor
germination qualities. It cannot withstand drought.

BERMUDA GRASS: this is a grazing grass, has low production generally and is
drought resistant. It is also tolerant to overgrazing.

LEGUMES USED AS FORAGE:

Kudzu, Centrosema and Alfalfa

The benefits of legumes in pasture are : 1 It helps to improve the nutrition in

animals 2. Improve the palatability for animals. 3. Better digestibility for the
animals. 4. Improve nutrient content in the soil. 5. The pasture is less costly to
maintain

Problems of legumes in pasture:

When legumes are planted, they introduce pest and diseases

Legumes are not drought resistant and so may die during drought periods.

Pastures can be overrun by legumes and it causes bloating in animals.

Management of Pasture: As a farmer, you should consider the choice of land and
species of plant to be planted. All the care and maintenance measures should be
employed which should include time of planting, species of plant to be used,
correct spacing, fertilizer application, weeds control, time of cutting and so on.
GRASS CONSERVATION

Grass is conserved in at least 3 ways:-

1 hay 2. Silage 3. Artificial dried grass

Guyana and the Caribbean are considered the tropics and the best time is to cut
the plant before they flower and mature. The forage must dry to prevent fungal
and bacterial growth. Any forage left standing in the field is called standing hay.

Silage

This is produced in a silo and there are 2 types: 1 pit silo 2. Tower silo

Forage of any amount is ensiled. The forage is chopped and stacked so the air is
excluded as much as possible.

PLANT PROTECTION: In farming, there is a need for plant protection. Farming

removes the natural vegetation and limits the amount of weeds growing there.
This however, will still cause some pests and disease to build up due to the
presence of certain types of weeds.

Some chemicals used for plant protection are insecticides, fungicides, weedicides
and nematicides.

Insecticides control insects for example Mylealathion, Fastac and Safer

Fungicides control fungus for examples kocide Benlate, kocide 101, Dithane M45,
Tri-Miltox Forte

Weedicides control weeds such as Gramoxone, Totacol, Amine, Swiper, Cutlass

Nematicide controls nematodes for example Nemagon and Furadan. Nematodes

normally attack the root of plants and cause it to swell and sometimes rot. The
plant can eventually die.

WEEDS AND NOXIOUS PLANTS

COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME

Broom Weed Sida acuta

Milk weed Euphorbia sp

Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica

Railway daisy Bidens pilosa

Nut grass Cyperus rotundus

Fowl foot grass Elusine indica

Corn grass Ruttboelliaexaltata

Water grass Commelina

Devil Horsewhip Achyranthes indica

Stinging Nettle Fleuys aestuans

PESTS

A pest is any organism that is harmful or injurious to crops or livestock

Pests are significant because they can cause decrease in crop and livestock
production. They also transmit diseases like mosaics which are caused by aphids.

Pest causes extra cost to farmers and damages stored crops.

One good thing is that some pests can be used to control others, which is a
biological control. One such is the ladybird beetle (a beneficial pest).

Some insects carry diseases and when they go on your plants, the disease will go
on crops. These are called VECTORS for example Aphids.

Insects can be divided into 2 feeding groups:

1. Biting and chewing mouth part

2. Piercing and sucking mouth part

The biting and chewing mouth part insects such as beetles, wasps,
grasshoppers, crickets, ants and bees eat their way through plants leaving
holes. The larvae of butterflies and moths (caterpillars) and flies (maggots) are
also chewers. These insects eat leaves causing photosynthesis to be reduced
or stop eventually. Thus decrease crop yield.
Piercing and sucking mouth part insects like aphids, suck the sap of leaves and
softer tissues resulting in reduced growth.

INSECTS Damage done

Aphids Sucking mouth part damage shoot tips of crops. Damage

softer part of stems and leaves. E.g citrus, peppers,

Boulanger ( egg plant)

Fruit moth Pierces fruit eg citrus and cachews

Fruit fly Bore into fruit before they ripen e.g mango, pineapple,

pear( avocado) guava

White fly Pierces soft tissues so plants do not grow eg tomatoes,

peppers

Cricket Biting mouth part, chews tips of young plant eg tomatoes,

bora, onions

Termite Feeds on the roots and stems often destroying the whole

plant

Weevil The larvae make tunnels in the corms and cause extensive

damage by weakening the plant so they are easily blown

down eg banana root borers on bananas. So banana root

borer is a type weevil

Diamond back moth The Larvae of caterpillars feed on leaves of vegetables

e.g cabbage patchoi, califlowers

Flea beetle Biting and chewing mouth part. Feeds on leaves leaving

round holes, plants eventually have reduced growth e.g

 ochroes

Crop diseases can be caused by a number of different organisms. These

organisms are called pathogenic organisms. They can enter plants through
damaged parts, the stomata on leaves. Here are some examples 1. Fungi 2.
Bacteria 3. Viruses 4. Nematodes 5. Mycoplasmas

PATHOGEN Mode of Transmission Symptoms of Disease

FUNGI: This is an Spread by spores in the . The rust forms a

organism that do not air which land on the reddish patch on the
possess chlorophyll, plant, germinate and stem and leaves of
consist of a network of enter via the stomata cereal plants.
fine threads which
spread throughout the . smuts form black
plant absorbing powdery masses of
nutrients; usually spores which affect the
produce masses of cereal grains
spores . powdery mildew
produces a white
powdery coating on the
surface of plant leaves
and fruits-the plants
then become distorted
and inedible.

. damping-off disease of
seedlings of the
cabbage family causes
collapse of stem tissue

. potato blight destroys

leaves, stem and tubers
of potato

BACTERIA: microscopic Spread from plant to Bacterial wilt produce

singled celled plant in the air, rain or symptoms which look
organisms, obtain their from contact with other like a nitrogen
nutrients from the host organisms; enters the deficiency ( leaves go
plant; multiply rapidly plant via the stomata or yellow).
inside the host wounds.
Fireblight causes the
young shoot and
blossom to die. This
affects fruit trees
mostly. The affected
area appears
blackened.

VIRUSES: very small Spread by aphids and Mosaic disease causes

structures; consist of other sucking insects. leaves to develop
nucleic acid surrounded Some may be spread patches or stripes of
by a protein coat; can through budding and colour; affect a variety
only reproduce inside grafting especially using of crops eg beans etc
the cells of the host; untreated knives.
cannot survive outside
another living organism

MyCOPLASMAS: tiny Spread by leaf hopper . Causes yellowing and

organisms which are that jump from one stunting of plants
smaller than bacteria plant to another
. Leaves become
wrinkled and wilted

NEMATODES: very small Abundant in the soil, Causes swelling of roots

1 mm in length. Non- can penetrate and enter and root balls which
segmented worms roots. weakens plant and
which are present in the reduce growth.
soil
Affects tomatoes,
pineapples, bananas etc

Plants can be protected from pests and diseases in a number of ways including
cultural, chemical, biological and integrated pest management (IPM).
Cultural techniques include hand picking of pests such as caterpillars. This can
be time consuming if its on a large scale. Traps – pests are trapped and killed
such as glue traps, mouse traps can also be used. Sticky papers for flies. There
are also mechanical barriers where wire gauze is used to prevent insects from
entering.

Disinfecting and sterilizing of soil. This technique kills weed seeds, insect eggs
and larvae and also fungal spores; banana suckers can be disinfected with hot
water.

Crop rotation reduces the spread of insects that infect crops.

Planting diseased resistant crops can also control the spread of diseases

Chemical Control

A pesticide is a chemical substance used to control pests. It is poisonous to

the pest but does not harm the crops. Herbicides kill weeds, insecticides kill
insects, fungicides kill fungi and nematicides kill nematodes.

Pesticides can also be classified according to the way in which they work. For
example Contact pesticide

Contact pesticides are sprayed on to the crop and they coat the plants. Contact
fungicides treat fungal diseases and are absorbed by the fungal pathogens.
Contact insecticides get into the bodies of insect pests through their
respiratory system and kill them. These pesticides do not last for a long time
thus they can be washed off by rain. That is why they are effective in killing
pests.

Systemic pesticides are absorbed through the leaves and roots of crop plants
and are translocated (carried) around the plant. The cell sap becomes toxic to
the pest. So the pest is destroyed as it feeds on the crop. The advantage of this
systemic pesticide is that it remains in the plant for a long time and can protect
the crop from possible infestations before they occur. Eg Organophosphates

Residual pesticides: are sprayed on the land before a crop is planted. They kill
weed seeds, fungal spores, insect eggs and larvae. They are used as part of the
land preparation and they have a long standing effect.

Pest and disease control

For mole cricket, slugs and cutworms apply a soil insecticide such as Diazinon
at 10 mi per 4.5 liters of water

For leaf attack by caterpillars and aphids use pestac; 5 ml per 4.5 liters of
water

For leaf minor attack apply Trigard as a foliar spray.

For fungal attack use champion or kocide 101 or tri-miltox at a rate of 30 g for
4.5 liters of water

For blossom end rot, water the soil regularly. This is found on tomatoes

Biological Control: This is where a natural predator is used. For instance the
lady bird beetle and the hoover fly feed on aphids. Birds eat caterpillar which is
a biological control.

(IPM) integrated pest management

The i.p.m aims to control pests by using a combination of methods to keep

pest populations at low levels rather than totally eliminating them. I.P.M uses
cultural and biological control methods instead of relying on the use of
chemicals. If however, chemicals are used, then it must be chosen for their
shortest toxicity.

Harvesting and post-Harvesting Practices

For various crops, there will be different times of harvesting and different
handling and packaging measures employed. For the cultivation of fruits and
vegetables, harvesting is done when the fruit is fully mature in some case the
colour may change. This can be done 2 to 3 months after planting eg. Ochro,
bora, tomato, pepper etc. Some may require staking like tomatoes and
Boulanger. Mature fruit can be recognized by the area beneath the sepals
(calyx) becoming brown. Some people may look at the size or length as in the
case of bora.

Fruit can be harvested by hands and store in a wooden tray or box.

All fruits and vegetables harvested must be SORTED out then GRADED then
PACKAGED then MARKETED. Remember washing is not a part of post
harvested but as a farmer it is the right thing to do since you want people to
buy it.

So any agriculture produce whether crops or eggs or meat products, they must
pass those stage before marketing. Post-harvest is very important in
maintaining high quality products. Washing and drying are important since the
finish products must be packaged presentable enough to attract buyers
(consumers).