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IOT UNIT 1

IoT concepts and applications (Mohamed Sathak AJ College of Engineering)

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OCS 352- IOT CONCEPTS &

ITS
APPLICATIONS
Lecture Notes

III BE -CIVIL/EEE/MECH

(2021 Regulation)

Prepared by
S.Piriyadharshini AP/ECE

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OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS LTPC2023

OBJECTIVES:
• To apprise students with basic knowledge of IoT that paves a platform to understand physical and logical design
of IOT
• To teach a student how to analyze requirements of various communication models and protocols for cost-
effective design of IoT applications on different IoT platforms.
• To introduce the technologies behind Internet of Things (IoT).
• To explain the students how to code for an IoT application using Arduino/Raspberry Pi open platform.
• To apply the concept of Internet of Things in real world scenario.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS 5

Evolution of Internet of Things – Enabling Technologies – IoT Architectures: oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and
Alternative IoT Models – Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack – Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT

UNIT II COMPONENTS IN INTERNET OF THINGS 5

Functional Blocks of an IoT Ecosystem – Sensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects – Control Units - Communication
modules (Bluetooth, Zigbee,Wifi, GPS, GSM Modules)

UNIT III PROTOCOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES BEHIND IOT 6

IOT Protocols - IPv6, 6LoWPAN, MQTT, CoAP - RFID, Wireless Sensor Networks, BigData Analytics, Cloud
Computing, Embedded Systems.

UNIT IV OPEN PLATFORMS AND PROGRAMMING 7

IOT deployment for Raspberry Pi /Arduino plat form-Architecture –Programming – Interfacing – Accessing GPIO Pins
– Sending and Receiving Signals Using GPIO Pins – Connecting to the Cloud.

UNIT V IOT APPLICATIONS 7

Business models for the internet of things, Smart city, Smart mobility and transport, Industrial IoT, Smart health,
Environment monitoring and surveillance – Home Automation – Smart Agriculture
30 PERIODS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES: 30 PERIODS

1. Introduction to Arduino platform and programming

2. Interfacing Arduino to Zigbee module
3. Interfacing Arduino to GSM module
4. Interfacing Arduino to Bluetooth Module
5 Introduction to Raspberry PI platform and python programming
6. Interfacing sensors to Raspberry PI
7. Communicate between Arduino and Raspberry PI using any wireless medium
8. Setup a cloud platform to log the data
9. Log Data using Raspberry PI and upload to the cloud platform
10.Design an IOT based system

OUTCOMES:
CO 1: Explain the concept of IoT.
CO 2: Understand the communication models and various protocols for IoT.
CO 3: Design portable IoT using Arduino/Raspberry Pi /open platform

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CO 4: Apply data analytics and use cloud offerings related to IoT.

CO 5: Analyse applications of IoT in real time scenario. TOTAL:60
PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS
1. Robert Barton, Patrick Grossetete, David Hanes, Jerome Henry, Gonzalo Salgueiro, “IoT
Fundamentals: Networking Technologies, Protocols, and Use Cases for the Internet of Things”,
CISCO Press, 2017
2. Samuel Greengard, The Internet of Things, The MIT Press, 2015
REFERENCES
1. Perry Lea, “Internet of things for architects”, Packt, 2018
2. Olivier Hersent, David Boswarthick, Omar Elloumi , “The Internet of Things – Key applications and Protocols”,
Wiley, 2012
3. IOT (Internet of Things) Programming: A Simple and Fast Way of Learning, IOT Kindle Edition.
4. Dieter Uckelmann, Mark Harrison, Michahelles, Florian (Eds), “Architecting the Internet of Things”, Springer, 2011.
5. Arshdeep Bahga, Vijay Madisetti, “Internet of Things – A hands-on approach”, Universities Press, 2015
6. https://www.arduino.cc/
7. https://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/?ca=v_smarterplanet

Unit 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF IoT

1. INTRODUCTION TO IoT

• IOT Definition: The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the use of intelligently connected devices and
systems to leverage data gathered by embedded sensors and actuators in machines and other physical
objects.
• IoT terminology is not entirely settled. IoT is as roughly equivalent to what is referred to as the Internet
of Everything (Cisco/W3C terminology), the Physical Web (Google terminology), Physical
Computing (Arduino terminology), Machine-to-Machine (M2M), Cyber-Physical Systems (Control
theory terminology) or the World-Sized Web (a term coined by B. Schneier).

• Today the Internet has become ubiquitous, has touched almost every corner of the globe, and
is affecting human life in unimaginable ways.
• We are now entering an era of even more pervasive connectivity where very wide variety of
appliances will be connected to the web.
• One year after the past edition of the Cluster book 2012 it can be clearly stated that the
Internet of Things (IoT) has reached many different players and gained further recognition.
Out of the potential Internet of Things application areas, Smart Cities (and regions), Smart

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Car and mobility, Smart Home and assisted living, Smart Industries, Public safety, Energy
& environmental protection, Agriculture and Tourism as part of a future IoT Ecosystem
(Figure 1.1) have acquired high attention.

IoT Ecosystem.

1.The Internet of Things as simply an interaction between the physical and digital worlds.
The digital world interacts with the physical world using a plethora of sensors and actuators.
2. Another is the Internet of Things is defined as a paradigm in which computing and
networking capabilities are embedded in any kind of conceivable object.
• We use these capabilities to query the state of the object and to change its state if possible.
• In common parlance, the Internet of Things refers to a new kind of world where almost all
the devices and appliances that we use are connected to a network.
• We can use them collaboratively to achieve complex tasks that require a high degree of
intelligence.
• For this intelligence and interconnection, IoT devices are equipped with embedded sensors,
actuators, processors, and transceivers.
• IoT is not a single technology; rather it is an agglomeration of various technologies that
work together in tandem.
• Sensors and actuators are devices, which help in interacting with the physical environment.
• The data collected by the sensors has to be stored and processed intelligently in order to
derive useful inferences from it.
• Note that we broadly define the term sensor; a mobile phone or even a microwave oven can
count as a sensor as long as it provides inputs about its current state (internal state +
environment).
• An actuator is a device that is used to effect a change in the environment such as the
temperature controller of an air conditioner.
• The storage and processing of data can be done on the edge of the network itself or in a
remote server.
• If any preprocessing of data is possible, then it is typically done at either the sensor or some
other proximate device.
• The processed data is then typically sent to a remote server.

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• The storage and processing capabilities of an IoT object are also restricted by the resources
available, which are often very constrained due to limitations of size, energy, power, and
computational capability.
• As a result the main research challenge is to ensure that we get the right kind of data at the
desired level of accuracy.
• Along with the challenges of data collection, and handling, there are challenges in
communication as well.
• The communication between IoT devices is mainly wireless because they are generally
installed at geographically dispersed locations.
• The wireless channels often have high rates of distortion and are unreliable.
• In this scenario reliably communicating data without too many retransmissions is an
important problem and thus communication technologies are integral to the study of IoT
devices.
• We can directly modify the physical world through actuators or we may do something
virtually. For example, we can send some information to other smart things.
• The process of effecting a change in the physical world is often dependent on its state at that
point of time. This is called context awareness. Each action is taken keeping in consideration
the context because an application can behave differently in different contexts.
• For example, a person may not like messages from his office to interrupt him when he is on
vacation. Sensors, actuators, compute servers, and the communicationnetwork form the core
infrastructure of an IoT framework. However, there are many software aspects that need to
be considered.
• First, we need a middleware that can be used to connect and manage all of these
heterogeneous components. We need a lot of standardization to connect many different
devices.
• The Internet of Things finds various applications in health care, fitness, education,
entertainment, social life, energy conservation, environment monitoring, home automation,
and transport systems.

2.Evolution of IoT

• The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a transformative technology, connecting devices
and enabling seamless communication between the physical and digital worlds.

• Over the years, the IoT has undergone a significant evolution, transitioning from simple
connected devices to intricate smart ecosystems that revolutionize industries and improve our
daily lives.

• The first phase of the IoT witnessed the proliferation of connected devices. Everyday objects
such as smartphones, wearables, and home appliances became "smart" by connecting to the
internet, allowing users to remotely control and monitor them.

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• This connectivity paved the way for advancements in areas like home automation, health
monitoring, and personalized user experiences.

• One of the key challenges faced during the IoT's evolution was the lack of interoperability
between different devices and platforms.

• This led to fragmented ecosystems and hindered the seamless integration of devices.
However, efforts were made to establish industry standards and protocols, enabling
interoperability and fostering collaboration among various stakeholders.

• Standards like Zigbee, Z-Wave, and MQTT emerged, facilitating device communication and
data exchange across different IoT platforms.

• The evolution of IoT extended beyond consumer devices to industry-specific applications.

Sectors such as healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and agriculture embraced IoT
technologies to optimize operations, increase efficiency, and improve safety.

• In healthcare, IoT devices monitor patient health remotely, facilitate telemedicine, and enable
predictive analytics for disease prevention.

• In manufacturing, IoT sensors and automation enhance production processes, reduce

downtime, and enable predictive maintenance.

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3.TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN IOT DEVELOPMENT: INTERNET/WEB

AND NETWORKING BASICS OSI MODEL
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end
nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to them
where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The coordinator
also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.

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Example –
• Weather monitoring system
• Indoor air quality monitoring system
• Soil moisture monitoring system
• Surveillance system
• Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
• IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines,
virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay
per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web
Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
• PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the
complete life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud)
applications – without the cost and complexity of buying and managing
underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms
such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a
platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
• SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet,
freeing yourself from complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand
software or hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security
availability and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.

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3. Big Data Analytics :

It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data
whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control,
process and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization

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Examples –
• Bank transactions
• Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
• E-commerce and in Big-Basket
• Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands

4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of
protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes

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5. EmbeddedSystems:
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet
Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash
memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.

Embedded systems used in

Examples
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

Technologies involved in IOT:

All issues do not have a technical solution, science and technology can certainly contribute to
decreasing potential negative effects. In order to enable IoT optimism and to reduce causes for
pessimism, technology must combine progress in a variety of scientific fields including:

• Computer networks (so Alice’s devices can communicate and interoperate),

• Miniature energy-efficient hardware (so Alice’s devices are long-lived and convenient to wear),
• Low-power Embedded Software (so devices can cooperate, durably, on a small battery)
• Distributed Computing (so Alice remains flexible as to where and how her data might be
processed),
• Privacy-Preserving Data Processing (so Alice can keep under control personal or sensitive data,
and manage its use),

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• Control and Robotics (to efficiently pilot Alice’s sensors and actuators), • Human-Computer
Interfacing (to offer simple but powerful control of the system),
• System Safety (to ensure the actuators are not dangerous for Alice or others), and
• System Security (to defend Alice against potential hackers).
• Networking technologies enable IoT devices to communicate with other devices, applications,
and services running in the cloud.
• The internet relies on standardized protocols to ensure communication between
heterogeneous devices is secure and reliable.
• Standard protocols specify rules and formats that devices use to establish and
manage networks and transmit data across those networks.
• Networks are built as a “stack” of technologies. A technology such as Bluetooth
LE is at the bottom of the stack.
• While others such as such as IPv6 technologies (which is responsible for the logical
device addressing and routing of network traffic) are further up the stack.
Technologies at the top of the stack are used by the applications that are running
on top of those layers, such as message queuing technologies.
• This article describes widely adopted technologies and standards for IoT
networking. It also provides guidance for choosing one network protocol over
another. It then discusses key considerations and challenges related to networking
within IoT: range, bandwidth, power usage, intermittent connectivity,
interoperability, and security.

IOT NETWORKING CONSIDERATIONS AND CHALLENGES

When you consider which networking technologies to adopt within your

IoT application, be mindful of the following constraints:

• Range
• Bandwidth
• Power usage
• Intermittent connectivity
• Interoperability
• Security

Range

Networks can be described in terms of the distances over which data is

typically transmitted by the IoT devices attached to the network:

• PAN (PersonalAreaNetwork)
PAN is short-range, where distances can be measured in meters,
such as a wearable fitness tracker device that communicates with
an app on a cell phone over BLE.

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• LAN (LocalAreaNetwork)
LAN is short- to medium-range, where distances can be up to
hundreds of meters, such as home automation or sensors that are
installed within a factory production line that communicate over wifi
with a gateway device that is installed within the same building.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) MAN is long-range (city wide),
where distances are measured up to a few kilometers, such as smart parking
sensors installed throughout a city that are connected in a mesh network
topology.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) WAN is long-range, where distances can be measured in
kilometers, such as agricultural sensors that are installed across a large farm or ranch
that are used to monitor micro-climate environmental conditions across the property.

Your network should retrieve data from the IoT devices and transmit to its
intended destination. Select a network protocol that matches the range is
required. For example, do not choose BLE for a WAN application to operate
over a range of several kilometers. If transmitting data over the required
range presents a challenge, consider edge computing. Edge computing
analyzes data directly from the devices rather than from a distant data center
or elsewhere.
Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time.
It limits the rate at which data can be collected from IoT devices and
transmitted upstream. Bandwidth is affected by many factors, which
include:

• The volume of data each device gathers and transmits

• The number of devices deployed
• Whether data is being sent as a constant stream or in intermittent bursts,
and if any peak periods are notable

The packet size of the networking protocol should match up with the volume of data
typically transmitted. It is inefficient to send packets padded with empty data. In
contrast, there are overheads in splitting larger chunks of data up across too many small
packets. Data transmission rates are not always symmetrical (that is, upload rates might
be slower than download rates). So, if there is two-way communication between devices,
data transmission needs to be factored in. Wireless and cellular networks are
traditionally low bandwidth, so consider whether a wireless technology is the right
choice for high-volume applications.

Consider whether all raw data must be transmitted. A possible solution is to capture less
data by sampling less frequently. Thus, you’ll capture fewer variables and may filter data
from the device to drop insignificant data. If you aggregate the data before you transmit

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it, you reduce the volume of data transmitted. But this process affects flexibility and
granularity in the upstream analysis. Aggregation and bursting are not always suitable for
time-sensitive or latency-sensitive data. All of these techniques increase the data
processing and storage requirements for the IoT device.

Power usage

Transmitting data from a device consumes power. Transmitting data over long ranges
requires more power than over a short range. You must consider the power source – such
as a battery, solar cell, or capacitor – of a device and its total lifecycle. A long and
enduring lifecycle will not only provide greater reliability but reduce operating cost. Steps
may be taken to help achieve longer power supply lifecycles. For example, to prolong the
battery life, you can put the device into sleep mode whenever it is idle. Another best
practice is to model the energy consumption of the device under different loads and
different network conditions to ensure that the device’s power supply and storage
capacity matches with the power that is required to transmit the necessary data by using
the networking technologies that you adopted.

Intermittent connectivity

IoT devices aren’t always connected. In some cases, devices are designed to connect
periodically. However, sometimes an unreliable network might cause devices to drop off
due to connectivity issues. Sometimes quality of service issues, such as dealing with
interference or channel contention on a wireless network using a shared spectrum.
Designs should incorporate intermittent connectivity and seek any available solutions to
provide uninterrupted service, should that be a critical factor for IoT landscape design.

Interoperability

Devices work with other devices, equipment, systems, and technology; they are
interoperable. With so many different devices connecting to the IoT, interoperability can
be a challenge. Adopting standard protocols has been a traditional approach for
maintaining interoperability on the Internet. Standards are agreed upon by industry
participants and avoid multiple different designs and directions. With proper standards,
and participants who agree to them, incompatibility issues, hence interoperability issues
may be avoided.

However, for the IoT, standardization processes sometimes struggle to keep up with
innovation and change. They are written and released based on upcoming versions of
standards that are still subject to change. Consider the ecosystem around the
technologies: Are they widely adopted? Are they open versus proprietary? How many
implementations are available?

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Using these questions to plan your IoT networks help plan better interoperability for a
more robust IoT network.
Security
Security is a priority. Selection of networking technologies that implement end-to-end
security, including authentication, encryption, and open port protection is crucial.
IEEE
802.15.4 includes a security model that provides security features that include access
control, message integrity, message confidentiality, and replay protection, which are
implemented by technologies based on this standard such as ZigBee.

Consider the following factors in shaping a secure and safe IoT network:

• Authentication
Adopt secure protocols to support authentication for devices, gateways, users,
services, and applications. Consider using adopting the X.509 standard for
device authentication.
• Encryption
If you are using wifi, use Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) for
wireless network encryption. You may also adopt a Private Pre-
Shared Key (PPSK) approach. To ensure privacy and data integrity
for communication between applications, be sure to adopt TLS or
Datagram Transport-Layer Security (DTLS), which is based on TLS,
but adapted for unreliable connections that run over UDP. TLS
encrypts application data and ensures its integrity.

• Port protectin
Port protection ensures that only the ports required for communication with the
gateway or upstream applications or services remain open to external
connections. All other ports should be disabled or protected by firewalls. Device
ports might be exposed when exploiting Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
vulnerabilities. Thus, UPnP should be disabled on the router.
4.IOT Architectures

A. The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell

Automation, and others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference
model. While various IoT reference models exist, the one put forth by the
IoT World Forum offers a clean, simplified perspective on IoT and includes
edge computing, data storage, and access. It provides a succinct way of
visualizing IoT from a technical perspective. Each of the seven layers is
broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the entire

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model. Figure belowd etails the IoT Reference Model published by the
IoTWF.
As shown in Figure 2-2, the IoT Reference Model defines a set of levels with control flowing from

the center (this could be either a cloud service or a dedicated data center), to the edge,

which includes sensors, devices, machines, and other types of intelligent end
nodes. In general, data travels up the stack, originating from the edge, and
goes northbound to the center.
Using this reference model, we are able to achieve the following:
• Decompose the IoT problem into smaller parts
• Identify different technologies at each layer and how they relate to one another
• Define a system in which different parts can be provided by different vendors
• Have a process of defining interfaces that leads to interoperability
• Define a tiered security model that is enforced at the transition
points between levels
The following sections look more closely at each of the seven layers of the
IoT Reference Model.
Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer
The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers layer.
This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various
endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information. The size of these
“things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a factory. Their
primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or controlled
over a network.
Layer 2: Connectivity Layer
In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most

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important function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data. More
specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the network and
between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer 3 (the edge
computing layer).As you may notice, the connectivity layer encompasses all networking
elements of IoTand doesn’t really distinguish between the last-mile network (the network
between the sensor/endpoint and the IoT gateway, discussed later in this chapter),
gateway, and backhaul networks. Functions of the connectivity layer are detailed in
Figure 2-3.
Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer.

Edge computing is the role of Layer 3. Edge computing is often referred to as the “fog”
layer and is discussed in the section “Fog Computing,” later in this chapter. At this layer,
the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into information that
is ready for storage and processing by higher layers. One of the basic principles of this
reference model is that information processing is initiated
as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible. Figure 2-4
highlights the functions handled by Layer 3 of the IoT Reference Model.

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Another important function that occurs at Layer 3 is the evaluation of data to see if it can
befiltered or aggregated before being sent to a higher layer. This also allows for data to be
reformatted or decoded ,making additional processing by other systems easier. Thus, a
critical function is assessing the data to see if predefined thresholds are crossed and any
action or alerts need to be sent.

Upper Layers: Layers 4–7

The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated
by the bottom layer. For the sake of completeness, Layers 4–7 of the IoT
Reference Model are summarized in Table 2-2.

B. M2M Communication

One M2M IoT Standardized Architecture In 2012 ETSI and 13 other founding members
launched oneM2M as a global initiative designed to promote efficient M2M communication
systems and IoT. The goal of oneM2M is to create a common services layer, which can be
readily embedded in field devices to allow communication with application servers.
oneM2M’s framework focuses on IoT services, applications, and platforms. These include
smart metering applications, smart grid, smart city automation, e health, and connected
vehicles. One of the greatest challenges in designing an IoT architecture is dealing with the
heterogeneity of devices, software, and access methods. By developing a horizontal platform
architecture, oneM2M is developing standards that allow interoperability at all levels of the
IoT stack. Figure: The Main Elements of the oneM2M IoT Architecture The oneM2M
architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains: the application layer, the
services layer, and the network layer. While this architecture may seem simple and

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somewhat generic at first glance, it is very rich and promotes interoperability through IT-
friendly APIs and supports a wide range of IoT technologies.

■ Applications layer: The oneM2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity

between devices and their applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols
and attempts to standardize northbound API definitions for interaction with business
intelligence (BI) systems. Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets
of data models, and thus they are shown as vertical entities.

■ Services layer: This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry
applications. At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT
applications run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples
include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on. Riding
on top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware
supporting third-party services and applications. One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to
“develop technical specifications which address the need for a common M2M Service Layer

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that can be readily embedded within various hardware and software nodes, and rely upon
connecting the myriad of devices in the field area network to M2M application servers,
which typically reside in a cloud or data center.” A critical objective of oneM2M is to attract
and actively involve organizations from M2M-related business domains, including
telematics and intelligent transportation, healthcare, utility, industrial automation, and smart
home applications, to name just a few.

Network layer: This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It
includes the devices themselves and the communications network that links them.
Embodiments of this communications infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies,
such as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah.
Also included are wired device connections, such as IEEE 1901 power line communications.
In many cases, the smart (and sometimes not-so-smart) devices communicate with each
other. In other cases, machine-tomachine communication is not necessary, and the devices
simply communicate through a field area network (FAN) to use-case-specific apps in the
IoT application domain. Therefore, the device domain also includes the gateway device,
which provides communications up into the core network and acts as a demarcation point
between the device and network domains.

Machine-to-machine communication, or M2M, is exactly as it sounds: two machines

“communicating,” or exchanging data, without human interfacing or interaction. This
includes serial connection, powerline connection (PLC), or wireless communications in
the industrial Internet of Things (IoT). Switching over to wireless has made M2M
communication much easier and enabled more applications to be connected.

In general, when someone says M2M communication, they often are referring to cellular
communication for embedded devices. Examples of M2M communication in this case
would be vending machines sending out inventory information or ATM machines getting
authorization to despense cash.

As businesses have realized the value of M2M, it has taken on a new name: the Internet
of Things (IoT). IoT and M2M have similar promises: to fundamentally change the way
the world operates. Just like IoT, M2M allows virtually any sensor to communicate,
which opens up the possibility of systems monitoring themselves and automatically
responding to changes in the environment, with a much reduced need for human
involvement. M2M and IoT are almost synonymous—the exception is IoT (the newer
term) typically refers to wireless communications, whereas M2M can refer to any two
machines—wired or wireless—communicating with one another.

Traditionally, M2M focused on “industrial telematics,” which is a fancy way of

explaining data transfer for some commercial benefit. But many original uses of M2M
still stand today, like smart meters. Wireless M2M has been dominated by cellular since

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it came out in the mid-2000’s with 2G cell networks. Because of this, the cellular
market has tried to brand M2M as an inherently cellular thing by offering M2M data
plans. But cellular M2M is only one subsection of the market, and it shouldn’t be
thought of as a cellular-only area.

How M2M Works

As previously stated, machine-to-machine communication makes the Internet of Things
possible. According to Forbes, M2M is among the fastest-growing types of connected
device technologies in the market right now, largely because M2M technologies can
connect millions of devices within a single network. The range of connected devices
includes anything from vending machines to medical equipment to vehicles to buildings.
Virtually anything that houses sensor or control technology can be connected to some
sort of wireless network.

This sounds complex, but the driving thought behind the idea is quite simple. Essentially,
M2M networks are very similar to LAN or WAN networks, but are exclusively used to
allow machines, sensors, and controls, to communicate. These devices feed information
they collect back to other devices in the network. This process allows a human (or an
intelligent control unit) to assess what is going on across the whole network and issue
appropriate instructions to member devices.

M2M Applications

The possibilities in the realm of M2M can be seen in four major use cases,
which we’ve detailed below:

1. MANUFACTURING

Every manufacturing environment—whether it’s food processing or general product

manufacturing—relies on technology to ensure costs are managed properly and
processes are executed efficiently. Automating manufacturing processes within such a
fast-paced environment is expected to improve processes even more. In the
manufacturing world, this could involve highly automated equipment maintenance and
safety procedures.

For example, M2M tools allow business owners to be alerted on their smartphones when
animportant piece of equipment needs servicing, so they can address issues as quickly as
they arise. Sophisticated networks of sensors connected to the Internet could even order
replacement parts automatically.

2. HOME APPLIANCES

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IoT already affects home appliance connectivity through platforms like Nest. However,
M2M is expected to take home-based IoT to the next level. Manufacturers like LG and
Samsung are already slowly unveiling smart home appliances to help ensure a higher
quality of life foroccupants.

For example, an M2M-capable washing machine could send alerts to the owners’ smart
devices once it finishes washing or drying, and a smart refrigerator could automatically
order groceries from Amazon once its inventory is depleted. There are many more
examples of home automation that can potentially improve quality of life for residents,
including systems that allow members of the household to remotely control HVAC
systems using their mobile devices. In situations where a homeowner decides to leave
work early, he or she could contact the home heating system before leaving work to make
sure the temperature at home will be comfortable upon arrival.

3. HEALTHCARE DEVICE MANAGEMENT

One of the biggest opportunities for M2M technology is in the realm of health care. With
M2M technology, hospitals can automate processes to ensure the highest levels of
treatment. Using devices that can react faster than a human healthcare professional in an
emergency situation make this possible. For instance, when a patient’s vital signs drop
below normal, an M2M-connected life support device could automatically administer
oxygen and additional care until a healthcare professional arrives on the scene. M2M also
allows patients to be monitored in their own homes instead of in hospitals or care centers.
For example, devices that track a frail or elderly person’s normal movements can detect
when he or she has had a fall and alert a healthcare worker to the situation.

4. SMART UTILITY MANAGEMENT

In the new age of energy efficiency, automation will quickly become the new normal. As
energy companies look for new ways to automate the metering process, M2M comes to
the rescue, helping energy companies automatically gather energy consumption data, so
they can accurately bill customers. Smart meters can track how much energy a household
or business uses and automatically alert the energy company, which supplants sending out
an employee to read the meter or requiring the customer to provide a reading. This is even
more important as utilities move toward more dynamic pricing models, charging
consumers more for energy usage during peak times.

A few key analysts predict that soon, every object or device will need to be able to connect
to the cloud. This is a bold but seemingly accurate statement. As more consumers,
users, and business owners demand deeper connectivity, technology will need to be
continually

equipped to meet the needs and challenges of tomorrow. This will empower a wide range

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ofhighly automated processes, from equipment repairs and firmware upgrades to system
diagnostics, data retrieval, and analysis. Information will be delivered to users, engineers,
data scientists, and key decision-makers in real time, and it will eliminate the need for
guesswork.

The Value Of M2M

Growth in the M2M and IoT markets has been growing rapidly, and according to many
reports, growth will continue. Strategy Analytics believes that low power, wide-area
network (LPWAN) connections will grow from 11 million in 2014 to 5 billion in
2022. And IDC says the market for worldwide IoT solutions will go from $1.9 trillion in
2013 to $7.1 trillion in 2020.

Many big cell operators, like AT&T and Verizon, see this potential and are rolling out
their own M2M platforms. Intel, PTC, and Wipro are are all marketing heavily in M2M
and working to take advantage of this major industry growth spurt. But there is still a great
opportunity for new technology companies to engage in highly automated solutions to
help streamline processes in nearly any type of industry. We’re certain we’ll see a huge
influx of companies who begin to innovate in this area in the next five years.

However, as the cost of M2M communication continues to decrease, companies must

determine how they will create value for businesses and customers. In our mind, the
opportunity and value for M2M doesn’t lie in the more traditional layers of the
communication world. Cell carriers and hardware manufacturers, for example, are
beginning to look into full-stack offerings that enable M2M and IoT product development.
We strongly believe value lies in the application side of things, and the growth in this
industry will be driven by smart applications from this point forward.

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Companies shouldn’t think about IoT or M2M for the sake of IoT or M2M. Instead, they
should focus on optimizing their business models or providing new value for their
customers. For example, if you’re a logistics company like FedEx or UPS, you have
obvious choices for automated logistics decisions made by machines. But if you’re a
retailer, the transition to automation may not be as obvious. It’s one thing to think of a
“cool” automated process—say, creating advertising that is automatically tied to a specific
customer through the use of M2M technology—but before you move forward with the
process, you have to consider the value you’re getting out of it. How much does it cost to
implement? Will any company considering a move into the IoT space needs to understand
what its business model is, how it will make money, and how it will provide value for
customers or internal processes.

C. Simplified Architecture of IoT

Figure below has three layers, namely, the perception, network, and application layers.

(i) The perception layer is the physical layer, which has sensors for sensing and
gathering information about the environment. It senses some physical
parameters or identifies other smart objects in the environment.
(ii) The network layer is responsible for connecting to other smart things, network
devices, and servers. Its features are also used for transmitting and processing
sensor data.
(iii) The application layer is responsible for delivering application
specific services to the user. It defines various applications in
which the Internet of Things can be deployed, for example, smart
homes, smart cities, and smart health.

The three-layer architecture defines the main idea of the Internet of Things, but it is not
sufficient for research on IoT because research often focuses on finer aspects of the Internet
of Things. That is why, we have many more layered architectures proposed in the literature.
One is the fivelayer architecture, which additionally includes the processing and business
layers [3–6]. The five layers are perception, transport, processing, application, and business
layers (see Figure 1). The role of the perception and application layers is the same as the
architecture with three layers. We outline the function of the remaining three layers.

(i) The transport layer transfers the sensor data from the perception layer
to the processing layer and vice versa through networks such as
wireless, 3G, LAN, Bluetooth, RFID, and NFC.
(ii) The processing layer is also known as the middleware
layer. It stores, analyzes, and processes huge amounts of

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data that comes from the transport layer. It can manage

and provide a diverse set of services to the

lower layers. It employs many technologies such as

databases, cloud computing, and big data processing
modules.
(iii) The business layer manages the whole IoT system,
including applications, business and profit models, and
users’ privacy. The business layer is out of the scope of
this paper. Hence, we do not discuss it further.

D. Core IoT Functional Stack

The IoT network must be designed to support its unique requirements and constraints. This section
provides an overview of the full networking stack, from sensors all the way to the applications
layer.

The Core IoT Functional Stack IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart
objects performing functions and delivering new connected services. These objects are “smart”
because they use a combination of contextual information and configured goals to perform actions.
These actions can be self-contained (that is, the smart object does not rely on external systems for
its actions); however, in most cases, the “thing” interacts with an external system to report
information that the smart object collects, to exchange with other objects, or to interact with a
management platform. In this case, the management platform can be used to process data collected
from the smart object and also guide the behavior of the smart object. From an architectural
standpoint, several components have to work together for an IoT network to be operational:
“Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the environment
in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the information needed.
Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they need to
communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication uses a wireless
technology. This layer has four sublayers: Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT
network is the access network. This is typically made up of wireless technologies such as
802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa. The sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.
Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication system organizes multiple
smart objects in a given area around a common gateway. The gateway communicates directly with
the smart objects. The role of the gateway is to forward the collected information through a longer-
range medium (called the backhaul) to a headend central station where the information is
processed. This information exchange is a Layer 7 (application) function, which is the reason this
object is called a gateway. On IP networks, this gateway also forwards packets from one IP
network to another, and it therefore acts as a router. Network transport sublayer: For
communication to be successful, network and transport layer protocols such as IP and UDP must

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be implemented to support the variety of devices to connect and media to use. IoT network
management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow the headend applications to
exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP and MQTT.

Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to process the
collected data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to make
intelligent decision based on the information collected and, in turn, instruct the “things”
or other systems to adapt to the analyzed conditions and change their behaviors or
parameters. The following sections examine these elements and help you architect your
IoT communication network.

Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

Most IoT networks start from the object, or “thing,” that needs to be connected.From an
architectural standpoint, the variety of smart object types, shapes, and needs drive the
variety of IoT protocols and architectures. There are myriad ways to classify smart
objects. One architectural classification could be:

• Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the

object carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external
power source. Battery- powered things can be moved more easily than line- powered
objects. However, batteries limit the lifetime and amount of energy that the object is
allowed to consume, thus driving transmission range and frequency.

• Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or
always stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one
object to another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved from batch to batch in a
chemical plant) or because it is attached to a moving object (for example, a location
sensor on moving goods in a warehouse or factory floor). The frequency of the
movement may also vary, from occasional to permanent. The range of mobility (from a
few inches to miles away) often drives the possible power source.
• Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object
should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a month. A
motion sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second. Higher
frequencies drive higher energy consumption, which may create constraints on the
possible power source (and therefore the object mobility) and the transmission range.
• Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at
each report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value
(on a binary scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report hundreds of
parameters, from temperature to pressure, gas velocity, compression speed, carbon
index, and many others. Richer data typically drives higher power consumption. This
classification is often combined with the previous to determine the object data

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throughput (low throughput to high throughput). You may want to keep in mind that
throughput is a combined metric. A medium-throughput object may send simple data at
rather high frequency (in which case the flow structure looks
continuous), or may send rich data at rather low frequency (in which case
the flow structure looks bursty).
• Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is
located. For example, for your fitness band to communicate with your phone, it needs
to be located a few meters away at most. The assumption is that your phone needs to
be at visual distance for you to consult the reported data on the phone screen. If the
phone is far away, you typically do not use it, and reporting data from the band to the
phone is not necessary. By contrast, a moisture sensor in the asphalt of a road may
need to communicate with its reader several hundred meters or even kilometers away.
• Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects
(with a similar need to communicate) over a given area, connected to the same gateway.
An oil pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations every few miles. By contrast,
telescopes like the SETI Colossus telescope at the Whipple Observatory deploy
hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of mirrors over a small area, each with multiple
gyroscopes, gravity, and vibration sensors.

Layer 2: Communications Network Layer

Once you have determined the influence of the smart object form factor over its transmission
capabilities (transmission range, data volume and frequency, sensor density and mobility), you
are ready to connect the object and communicate. Compute and network assets used in IoT
can be very different from those in IT environments. The difference in the physical form
factors between devices used by IT and OT is obvious even to the most casual of observers.
What typically drives thisis the physical environment in which the devices are deployed. What
may not be as inherently obvious, however, is their operational differences.

The operational differences must be understood in order to apply the correct handling to secure
the target assets. Temperature variances are an easily understood metric. The cause for the
variance is easily attributed to external weather forces and internal operating conditions.
Remote external locations, such as those associated with mineral extraction or pipeline
equipment can span from the heat of the Arabian Gulf to the cold of the Alaskan North Slope.
Controls near the furnaces of a steel mill obviously require heat tolerance, and controls for
cold food storage require the opposite. In some cases, these controls must handle extreme
fluctuations as well. These extremes can be seen within a single deployment. For example,
portions of the Tehachapi, California, wind farms are located in the Mojave Desert, while
others are at an altitude of 1800 m in the surrounding mountains. As you can imagine, the wide
variance in temperature takes a special piece of hardware that is capable of withstanding such
harsh environments. Humidity fluctuations can impact the long- term success of a system as

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well. Well heads residing in the delta of the Niger River.

• Access Network Sublayer

There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type
of connectivity topology this technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain
number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to transport at
what interval and over what distance). These use cases determined the frequency band that was
expected to be most suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern (packet
size and communication intervals), and the possible topologies that these use cases illustrate.
As IoT continues to grow exponentially, you will encounter a wide variety of applications and
special use cases. For each of them, an access technology will be required. IoT sometimes
reuses existing access technologies whose characteristics match more or less closely the IoT
use case requirements. Whereas some access technologies were developed specifically for IoT
use cases, others were not. One key parameter determining the choice of access technology is
the range between the smart object and the information collector. Figure 2-9 lists some access
technologies you may encounter in the IoT world and the expected transmission distances.

PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around a
person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common wireless
technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The term NAN is
often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is collected.

FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters. FAN
typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units. The FAN is often
seen as “open space” (and therefore not secured and not controlled). A FAN is sometimes
viewed as a group of NANs, but some verticals see the FAN as a group of HANs or a group
of smaller outdoor cells. As you can see, FAN and NAN may sometimes be used
interchangeably. In most cases, the vertical context is clearenough to determine the grouping
hierarchy.

LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common innetworking,
and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when standard networking
technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used. Other networking classifications,
such as MAN (metropolitan area network, with a range of up to a few kilometers) and WAN
(wide area network, with a range of more than a few kilometers), are also commonly used.
Network Transport Sublayer

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The previous section describes a hierarchical communication architecture

in which a series of smart objects report to a gateway that conveys the
reported data over another medium and up to a central station. However,
practical implementations are often flexible, with multiple transversal
communication paths. For example, consider the case of IoT for the energy
grid. Your house may have a meter that reports the energy consumption to
a gateway over a wireless technology. Other houses in your neighborhood
(NAN) make the same report, likely to one or several gateways. The data
to be transported is small and the interval is large (for example, four times
per hour), resulting in a low-mobility, lowthroughput type of data structure,
with transmission distances up to a mile. Several technologies (such as
802.11ah, 802.15.4, or LPWA) can be used for this collection segment.
Other neighborhoods may also connect the same way, thus forming a FAN.

IoT Network Management Sublayer

IP, TCP, and UDP bring connectivity to IoT networks. Upper-layer

protocols need to take care of data transmission between the smart objects
and other systems. Multiple protocols have been leveraged or created to
solve IoT data communication problems. Some networks rely on a push
model (that is, a sensor reports at a regular interval or based on a local
trigger), whereas others rely on a pull model (that is, an application queries
the sensor over the network), and multiple hybrid approaches are also
possible.

Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer

Once connected to a network, your smart objects exchange information with other
systems. As soon as your IoT network spans more than a few sensors, the power of the
Internet of Things appears in the applications that make use of the information
exchanged with the smart objects. Analytics Versus Control Applications Multiple
applications can help increase the efficiency of an IoT network. Each application
collects data and provides a range of functions based on analyzing the collected data.
It can be difficult to compare the features offered. Chapter 7, “Data and Analytics for
IoT,” provides an in-depth analysis of the various application families. From an
architectural standpoint, one basic classification can be as follows: Analytics
application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical
reports, statistics, or trends to individual system states. The important aspect is that the
application processes the data to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained
from solely looking at the information displayed by a single

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smart object. Control application: This type of application controls the

behavior of the smart object or the behavior of an object related to the smart
object. For example, a pressure sensor may be connected to a pump. A
control application increases the pump speed when the connected sensor
detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very useful for
controlling complex aspects of an IoT network with a logic that cannot be
programmed inside a single IoT object, either because the configured
changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because the
configured changes rely on parameters that include elements outside the
IoT object.

4.Fog Computing
The solution to the challenges mentioned in the previous section is to distribute data
management throughout the IoT system, as close to the edge of the IP network as
possible. The best-known embodiment of edge services in IoT is fog computing. Any
device with computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node.
Examples include industrial controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, and
IoT gateways. Analyzing IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency,
offloads gigabytes of network traffic from the core network, and keeps sensitive data
inside the local network.

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Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge device, sitting as
close to the IoT endpoints as possible. One significant advantage of this
is that the fog
node has contextual awareness of the sensors it is managing because of its geographic
proximity to those sensors. For example, there might be a fog router on an oil derrick that
is monitoring all the sensor activity at that location. Because the fog node is able to analyze
information from all the sensors on that derrick, it can provide contextual analysis of the
messages it is receiving and may decide to send back only the relevant information over
the backhaul network to the cloud. In this way, it is performing distributed analytics such
that the volume of data sent upstream is greatly reduced and is much more useful to
application and analytics servers residing in the cloud.

The defining characteristic of fog computing are as follows:

Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog node sits as close to the IoT
endpoint as possible to deliver distributed computing.

Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services
and applications targeted by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.

Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a
large number of IoT endpoints. For example, typical metering deployments often see 3000
to 4000 nodes per gateway router, which also functions as the fog computing node.

Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although it is possible
to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing with a large
number of endpoints, and wireless access is the easiest way to achieve such scale.

Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time interactions
rather than batch processing. Preprocessing of data in the fog nodes allows upper-layer
applications to perform batch processing on a subset of the data.

5.Edge Computing

Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many industries, and

efforts to develop distributed applications and analytics tools are being introduced at an
accelerating pace. The natural place for a fog node is in the network device that sits closest to the
IoT endpoints, and these nodes are typically spread throughout an IoT network. However, in
recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been pushed even further to the edge, and in some
cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT devices.
Edge Computing Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many
industries, and efforts to develop distributed applications and analytics tools are being introduced
at an accelerating pace. The natural place for a fog node is in the network device that sits closest

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to the IoT endpoints, and these nodes are typically spread throughout an IoT network. However,
in recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been pushed even further to the edge, and in
some cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT devices. IoT devices and sensors often
have constrained resources, however, as compute capabilities increase.
Some new classes of IoT endpoints have enough compute capabilities to
perform at least low-level analytics and filtering to make basic decisions. For example, consider
a water sensor on a fire hydrant. While a fog node sitting on an electrical pole in the distribution
network may have an excellent view of all the fire hydrants in a local neighborhood, a node on
each hydrant would have clear view of a water pressure drop on its own line and would be able to
quickly generate an alert of a localized problem. The fog node, on the other hand, would have a
wider view and would be able to ascertain whether the problem was more than just localized but
was affecting the entire area.
Another example is in the use of smart meters. Edge compute– capable
meters are able to communicate with each other to share information on small subsets of the
electrical distribution grid to monitor localized power quality and consumption, and they can
inform a fog node of events that may pertain to only tiny sections of the grid. Models such as these
helps ensure the highest quality of power delivery to customers.

The Hierarchy of Edge, Fog, and Cloud

It is important to stress that edge or fog computing in no way replaces the cloud. Rather, they
complement each other, and many use cases actually require strong cooperation between layers.
In the same way that lower courts do not replace the supreme court of a country, edge and fog
computing layers simply act as a first line of defense for filtering, analyzing, and otherwise
managing data endpoints.
This saves the cloud from being queried by each and every node for each
event. This model suggests a hierarchical organization of network, compute, and data storage
resources. At each stage, data is collected, analyzed, and responded to when necessary, according
to the capabilities of the resources at each layer.
As data needs to be sent to the cloud, the latency becomes higher. The advantage of this hierarchy
is that a response to events from resources close to the end device is fast and can result in
immediate benefits, while still having deeper compute resources available in the cloud when
necessary.
It is important to note that the heterogeneity of IoT devices also means
a heterogeneity of edge and fog computing resources. While cloud resources are expected to be
homogenous, it is fair to expect that in many cases both edge and fog resources will use different
operating systems, have different CPU and data storage capabilities, and have different energy
consumption profiles.
Edge and fog thus require an abstraction layer that allows applications
to communicate with one another. The abstraction layer exposes a common set of APIs for
monitoring, provisioning, and controlling physical resources in a standardized way.

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The abstraction layer also requires a mechanism to support virtualization, with the ability to run
multiple operating systems or service containers on physical devices to support multitenancy and
application consistency across the IoT system.
Definition of a common communications services framework is being
addressed by groups such as oneM2M, discussed earlier. Figure below illustrates the hierarchical
nature of edge, fog, and cloud computing across an IoT system. From an architectural standpoint,
fog nodes closest to the network edge receive the data from IoT devices. The fog IoT application
then directs different types of data to the optimal place for analysis:
■ The most time-sensitive data is analyzed on the edge or fog node closest to the things generating
the data.
■ Data that can wait seconds or minutes for action is passed along to an aggregation node for
analysis and action.
■ Data that is less time sensitive is sent to the cloud for historical analysis, big data analytics, and
long-term storage. For example, each of thousands or hundreds of thousands of fog nodes might
send periodic summaries of data to the cloud for historical analysis and storage. In summary, when
architecting an IoT network, you should consider the amount of data to be analyzed and the time
sensitivity of this data. Understanding these factors will help you decide whether cloud computing
is enough or whether edge or fog computing would improve your system efficiency. Fog
computing accelerates awareness and response to events by eliminating a round trip to the cloud
for analysis. It avoids the need for costly bandwidth additions by offloading gigabytes of network
traffic from the core network. It also protects sensitive IoT data by analyzing it inside company
walls

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EPC QUESTIONS - UNIT 1

1. Explain Evolution of IoT and Describe the IoT enabling Technologies

2. Explain M2M Communication with suitable explanations.
3. Explain in detail IOTWF standardized reference model Architecture.
4. Describe the simplified IoT Architecture.
5. Explain the concept of Edge, Fog and Cloud computing

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