RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

Module 3

Disposal of human excreta:

Safe disposal of excreta, so that it does not contaminate the environment, water, food or hands,
is essential for ensuring a healthy environment and for protecting personal health.

This can be accomplished in many ways, some requiring water, others requiring little or none.

Regardless of method, the safe disposal of human faeces is one of the principal ways of
breaking the faecal–oral disease transmission cycle. Sanitation is therefore a critical barrier to
disease transmission.

Extent of Problem

Most of the people of rural area use open field for defecation. They are ignorant that faeces are
infectious and pollute water and soil and promote fly breeding. Thus the problem of excreta
disposal is bound up with numerous beliefs and habits based on ignorance.

The Main health hazards of improper excreta disposal

✓ Water pollution

✓ Soil Pollution

✓ Contamination of food

✓ Propagation of flies & other insects

Methods of Excreta Disposal

Proper disposal of human excreta is essential for maintaining hygiene, preventing the spread
of diseases, and protecting water resources. Here are the common methods categorized based
on urban, rural, and emergency settings:

1. Pit Latrines

• Description: A simple pit dug in the ground, covered with a slab, and equipped with a
superstructure for privacy.

• Types:
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

o Simple Pit Latrine: Direct disposal into the pit.

o Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine: Incorporates a vent pipe to reduce

odor and flies.

• Advantages:

o Low cost and easy to construct.

o Suitable for rural areas.

• Disadvantages:

o Risk of groundwater contamination in high water table areas.

2. Septic Tanks

• Description: An underground chamber that collects and partially treats sewage through
sedimentation and anaerobic processes.

• Applications: Common in semi-urban areas and homes with no centralized sewerage.

• Advantages:

o Suitable for households and small communities.

o Produces sludge that can be safely removed periodically.

• Disadvantages:

o High installation and maintenance costs.

o Requires periodic desludging.

3. Sewerage Systems

• Description: Centralized network of pipes that collects and transports wastewater to a

treatment plant.

• Advantages:

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

o Hygienic and effective for urban areas.

o Can handle large populations.

• Disadvantages:

o Expensive to install and maintain.

o Requires significant infrastructure and treatment facilities.

4. Composting Toilets

• Description: Converts excreta into compost through aerobic decomposition.

• Types:

o Single or double chamber systems.

• Advantages:

o Produces nutrient-rich compost for agriculture.

o Eco-friendly and water-saving.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires regular maintenance and management.

5. Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan)

• Description: A dry sanitation system that separates urine and feces for resource
recovery and agricultural use.

• Advantages:

o Conserves water.

o Allows for recycling of nutrients into agriculture.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires user training and acceptance.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

6. Bucket or Vault Systems

• Description: Excreta is collected in buckets or sealed vaults and manually removed for
disposal or treatment.

• Applications: Temporary solutions in emergencies or remote areas.

• Advantages:

o Simple and mobile.

• Disadvantages:

o Labor-intensive and unhygienic if poorly managed.

7. Incineration Toilets

• Description: Burns excreta into sterile ash using high temperatures.

• Applications: Remote areas or locations with no water supply.

• Advantages:

o Produces no liquid waste.

o Hygienic and odorless.

• Disadvantages:

o High energy consumption.

o Expensive to operate.

8. Aquaprivies

• Description: A water-sealed latrine with a tank for anaerobic decomposition of waste.

• Advantages:

o Reduces odor and flies.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

o Can be integrated with biogas systems.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires water for flushing.

9. Bio-Digester Toilets

• Description: Excreta is digested anaerobically to produce biogas and a liquid effluent.

• Advantages:

o Produces usable biogas.

o Reduces waste volume significantly.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires maintenance and technical expertise.

10. Trench Latrines (Temporary/Emergency Use)

• Description: Shallow trenches dug for excreta disposal, covered with soil after use.

• Applications: Common in refugee camps, fairs, or disaster zones.

• Advantages:

o Quick and easy to set up.

• Disadvantages:

o Short-term solution; requires regular monitoring.

Material needed for privy pit

A privy pit is to take place, the map will show distance from the pit to near by dwelling source
of drinking water, property lines and other.

Showing the correct dimension of the pit.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

▪ Materials list describing all labour supplies and tools needed for privy digging lining
the pit the base of the pit.

Also need a slab or cover to cover the pit immediately after the base and lining are in place.

When is a privy suitable ?

➢ Privies are constructed where water under pressure is not available or practical.

➢ The water table must be at least 1.6 to 2.1 metres below the surface of the ground in
silty or clay soil or 4 to 4.5 metres below the surface in sandy soil, deeper in gravel

WHERE SHOULD PRIVY BE PLACED?

➢ 20m from a lake, creek pond, river, etc.

➢ 20m from wells.

➢ 3m from properly boundary.

➢ 30m from own house/cottage.

➢ 15m from neighbours house/cottage.

HOW SHOULD A PRIVY BE CONSTRUCTED

• See attached plans.

• Excavate pit 1 to 1.5m deep crib sides to prevent sloughing.

❑ Bottom of pit must be:-

• At least 60cm above water table in silty or clay soil.

• At least 3m above water table in sandy soil more in gravel.

• Place privy structure so pit is not accessible or visible from the exterior.

• Mound excavated earth so rain water and runoff do not enter in the pit.

• Screen all opening in outhouse building and put self closing device on the door to
exclude insects.

Privy digging and construction steps

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

➢ Depending on local condition available of materials, skills of workers and show on,
some construction steps will take only a few hours, while others may take a day or more

➢ Draw up a work plan that outlines required tasks and rough time estimates based on
local condition.

➢ You will then have an idea of when specific workmen, supplies and tools must be
available during the construction process.

The following are construction steps for building a pit

➢ Determine the correct location of the pit, using the location map similar to measuring
tap.

➢ Clear the area of any vegitation that might hinder construction.

➢ Lay out on the ground the correct dimension of the pit, as shown in the technical
drawing, and mark each corner of the pit with a wooden stake or pointed stick as shown.

➢ Build the base around the pit site. This is done before digging the pit to prevent the top
of the pit walls from crumbling and to ensure that the slab or cover can be put in place
immediately after the pit is dug and lined.

Types of privies

1. Pit Privy (Pit Latrine)

2. Vault Privy

3. Composting Privy (Composting Toilet)

4. Reed Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC)

5. Chemical Privy

6. Bucket Privy

7. Aqua Privy

8. Pour-Flush Privy

COMPOSITING
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

Compositing is a process in which organic materials undergo biological degradation to a stable

nuisance free humus like end materials

The general objectives of compositing are

i) To transform the biodegradable organic materials into a biologically stable material

and in the process reduce the original volume of waste.
ii) To destroy pathogens, insect eggs and other unwanted organisms and weed seeds that
may be present in MSW.
iii) To retain the maximum nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) content and
iv) To produce a product that can be used to support plant growth and as a soil amendment.
In general, the chemical and physical characteristics of compost vary according to the nature
of the starting material, the condition under which the compositing operation was carried and
the extent of the decomposition. Some of the properties of compost that distinguish it from
other organic materials are; i) A brown to very dark brown colour ii) A low carbon nitrogen
ratio iii) A continually changing nature due to the activities of micro organisms iv) A high
capacity for cation exchange and water absorption

When added to soil compost has been found to lighten heavy soils, to improve the texture of
light sandy soils and to increase the water retention capacity of most soils.

Aerobic Compositing

Aerobic compositing is the most commonly used biological process for the conversion of the
organic portion of MSW to stable humus like material known as compost. All aerobic
composting processes are similar, in that they all incorporate three basic steps,

i) Pre processing of the MSW ii) Aerobic decomposition of the organic

fraction of the MSW iii) Product preparation and marketing

Windrow, aerated static pile and in vessel are the three principal methods used for
composting of the organic fraction of MSW, while these processes differ primarily in the
method used to aerate the organic fraction of solid waste, the biological principles remain the
same and when designed and operated properly, all produce a similar quality compost in
approximately the same time period.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

“Aerobic compositing is defined as a process in which under suitable environmental

conditions, facultative aerobic organisms principally thermophilic, utilize considerable
amounts of oxygen in decomposing organic matter to a fairly stable humus”

With the exception of plastic, rubber and leather components, the organic fraction of most
MSW can be considered to be composed of proteins, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates,
cellulose, lignin, and ash. If these organic materials are subjected to aerobic micro-bacterial
decomposition, the end product remaining after microbiological activity has essentially ceased
is a humus material commonly known as compost.

Aerobic Compositing Micro Biology

During the aerobic compositing process a succession of facultative and obligate aerobic
micro-organisms is active. In the beginning phases of compositing process, mesophilic
bacteria are the most prevalent. After the temperatures in the compost rise, thermophilic
bacteria predominate, leading to thermophilic fungi, which appears after 5 to 10 days. In the
final stages or curing period as it is sometimes known, actinomycetes and molds appear.
Because significant concentrations of these micro-organisms may not be present in some types
of biodegradable waste (eg: newspaper), it may be necessary to add them to the compositing
material as an additive or inoculums.

The microbiology of all aerobic compositing process is similar. Critical parameters in the
control of aerobic compositing processes include moisture content, C/N ratio, and
temperature. For most biodegradable organic wastes, once the moisture content is brought to
a suitable level (50 to 60%) and the mass aerated, microbial metabolism speeds up. The
aerobic microorganisms, which utilize oxygen, feed upon the organic matter and develop cell
tissue from nitrogen, phosphorus, some of the carbon and other required nutrients. Much of
the carbon serves as a source of energy for the organisms and is burned up and respired as
CO2. Because organic carbon can serve both as a source of energy and cell carbon, more
carbon is required than, for example nitrogen.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

Anaerobic Compositing

Anaerobic compositing is the putrefactive breakdown of the organic matter by reduction in

the absence of oxygen, leading to the production of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

The microbiological conversion of the organic fraction of MSW under anaerobic conditions
is thought to occur in three steps.

The first step in the process involves the enzymes mediated transformation (hydrolysis) of
higher molecular mass compounds into compounds suitable for use as a source of energy and
cell tissue.

The second step involves the bacterial conversion of the compounds resulting from the first
step into identifiable lower-molecular mass intermediate compounds. The third step involves

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

the bacterial conversion of the intermediate compounds into simpler end products, principally
methane and carbon dioxide.

Bangalore Process of Compositing

Bangalore process is a common method used for biological conversion of organic components
of municipal solid wastes. In this method, the compositing materials are not turned and are
allowed to remain in the pits for about 4 months or longer.

1) A loose layer of MSW is to be placed and spread at the bottom of the pit with the help of
long handle rakes
2) A shallow pit or trench is developed in the waste layer and night soil about 5cm thick is
spread in this trench. Normally night soil flows readily by itself but a long handled broad
blade hoc can be used to spread it if necessary.
3) Succeeding layers of waste and night soil are added in a similar manner until the pit stack
is about 30cm above ground or pit curb
4) Each layer of night soil should be immediately covered with waste and the top most layer
of waste should be at least 20cm thick
5) The compositing mass develops a temperature of around 60 0C in a few days and remain
at the temperature for a considerable number of days
6) After the material has been decomposed for several days, the volume decreases and the
piles settle to ½ to 2/3 of the original depth. New layers of night soil and waste can thus
Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

be added to the pit until the level is again above the pit curb. In raining weather, the top
of the pile should be rounded to turn the water and prevent seepage into the pit
7) The pile may be covered with 5cm layer of earth to help prevent the escape of ammonia
when the initial C/N ratio of material is too low, as well as to reduce the escape of odours
8) The top 10-15cm of material in the pit do not decompose properly owing to the lower
temperature at the exposed surface. This material can be forked off the pit at the time the
compost is removed and reused for covering another pit.
9) Fly control may also be improved by covering the compost pit tightly with a tarred cloth,
sealed to the curb of the pit by a mud plaster.
10) After about 4-6 months, the material has developed into humus. It is removed and put
directly on the soil or screened. The large compostable particles may be pulverized or
returned to a compost pit for further decomposition until they will crumble into smaller
pieces.

Indore Process of Compositing

This process of compositing is similar to that of Bangalore process except that the
compositing mass is turned. It is done to maintain aerobic conditions and to keep away
obnoxious odours. It also keeps in maintaining high temperature, more rapid and uniform
decomposition and more effective fly control.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

The method is as follows

1) The steps in putting the initial materials in the pit are more or less same as in the
Bangalore process except that a small space about 60cm is left vacant at the end of the
pit. The vacant space is used to facilitate turning of the compost materials. The thickness
of bottom and intermediate layers is kept slightly less to obtain slightly higher M.C
2) Since the material is turned, exposure of all the material to high temperature is assumed
and higher M.C does not present a problem in maintaining aerobic conditions. This
actually permits the addition of higher proportion of night soil to the refuse. The presence
of odour is an indication of improper operation and should be used in the control of the
process indication of odours in that either material is not being properly turned or the pits
were not properly charged and the pockets of night soil were allowed to form
3) After 4 to 7 days of loading, the pit contents must be turned. Turning performs
3 functions

a) It completes the mixing of refuse and night soil

b) The materials at top and sides which are not subjected to high temperature are also
subjected to high temperature
c) The materials are aerated which is an essential feature of aerobic stabilization.
The fly larvae, pathogens, and parasites are destroyed by high temperature.

4) Since the volume of the material shrinks during composting, additional layers of night
soil may be added at the time of first turning of the materials
5) Second turn is made in 5-10days after the first turn by which time all the traces of night
soil disappear. Further turns are usually not necessary except when night soil was added
at the time of first turn. It is seen that three turns spaced at 3 to 4 days apart, usually
produce a compost in about 15-20 days.
6) If larger amounts of wastes are received than the pit capacity, the process can be expedited
by more frequent turns. This was seasonal fluctuations in the quantity of refuse can be
accommodated.

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan
RURAL WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION (21CV744)

Vermi Composting

Vermicomposting uses the natural composting process of decomposition of biodegradable

organic matter by the soil bacteria as in ordinary composting technique, but takes the
assistance cultured earth worms that are now produced commercially. These earth worms help
to quickly decompose the organic matter. The various steps involved in applying the vermin
composting technique are summarized below

1. Dig a small pit about 0.5m square and 1m deep

2. Line the pit with straw or dried leaves and other organic materials

3. Organize the disposal of organic domestic waste (such as vegetable waste) into the pit
4. Introduce a culture of worms that is now produced commercially

5. Cover the pit contents daily, by sprinkling of dried leaves and soil every day

6. Water the pit once or twice a week to keep it moist

7. Turn over the pit contents every 15 days

8. In about 45 days, the waste will be decomposed by the action of microorganisms

9. The produced humus in the pit is fertile and rich in soil nutrients

Mr. Krishna Swaroop C D, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MCE Hassan