Analysis and Coding Example: Qualitative Data

Here is an example of how to engage in a three step analytic process of coding,

categorizing, and identifying themes within the data presented. Note that different
researchers would come up with different results based on their specific research
questions, literature review findings, and theoretical perspective.
There are many ways cited in the literature to analyze qualitative data. The specific
analytic plan in this exercise involved a constant comparative (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
approach that included a three-step process of open coding, categorizing, and
synthesizing themes. The constant comparative process involved thinking about how
these comments were interrelated. Intertwined within this three step process, this
example engages in content analysis techniques as described by Patton (1987) through
which coherent and salient themes and patterns are identified throughout the data. This
is reflected in the congruencies and incongruencies reflected in the memos and
relational matrix.

Step 1: Open Coding

Codes for the qualitative data are created through a line by line analysis of the
comments. Codes would be based on the research questions, literature review, and
theoretical perspective articulated. Numbering the lines is helpful so that the researcher
can make notes regarding which comments they might like to quote in their report.
It is also useful to include memos to remind yourself of what you were thinking and
allow you to reflect on the initial interpretations as you engage in the next two analytic
steps. In addition, memos will be a reminder of issues that need to be addressed if there
is an opportunity for follow up data collection. This technique allows the researcher time
to reflect on how his/her biases might affect the analysis. Using different colored text for
memos makes it easy to differentiate thoughts from the data.
Many novice researchers forgo this step. Rather, they move right into arranging the
entire statements into the various categories that have been pre-identified. There are
two problems with the process. First, since the categories have been listed open coding,
it is unclear from where the categories have been derived. Rather, when a researcher
uses the open coding process, he/she look at each line of text individually and without
consideration for the others. This process of breaking the pieces down and then putting
them back together through analysis ensures that the researcher consider all for the
data equally and limits the bias that might introduced. In addition, if a researcher is
coding interviews or other significant amounts of qualitative data it will likely become
overwhelming as the researcher tries to organize and remember from which context
each piece of data came.

Data Code

1. There is not enough space in the building. Building

2. Our desks and equipment are dated and need replacing. Resources, Modernization,
Resources
3. We need a better cleaning service for the building. Services, Building
4. We need more focused recruitment and hiring standards
for teachers. Instructional Quality

5. We need objective observations and feedback from the Leadership Interaction,

principal. Support, Evaluation

6. We need consistent decisions about school rules. Uncertainty, Decision Making,

Responsibilities
7. There are leadership problems. Memo: I’m unclear
about what this is. This could be about communications,
requirements or interaction. What is meant by
problems? How does this fit in with the other leadership
concerns?

8. Nonproductive staff members should not be retained. Responsibilities, Equity

9. Each team of teachers has stereotypes about the other

teams. Conflict, Lack of Data

10. Decisions are made on inaccurate information. Decision Making,

Responsibilities
11. We need more opportunities to shift teaching
assignments. Lack of Data, Responsibilities

12. Our students are confused by different teacher styles and Focus on Students, Quality
expectations. Instruction

13. There is too much gossiping and criticizing. Conflict

14. We are not sure who is teaching which topics. Uncertainty, Instructional
Clarification.
15. We need a suggestion box. Memo: I think that this falls
under the category of decision making. What the
statement seems to be saying is that this participant
wants more opportunities to share her thoughts. In Decision Making
essence then, she will become part of the decision
making process.

16. We need more computer terminals. Technology Resources

17. There is a division between the old and new teachers. Conflict, New versus Veteran
 Memo: This not only indicates conflict but might be
based on perspective. Is there a duality among the new
and veteran teachers? Is this where some of the conflict
lies? Are there underlying issues like pay or respect?

18. There is a lack of support for individual teachers. Support

19. There is favoritism and preferential treatment for some

staff. Memo: Back to line 23. Could this idea have Conflict
support with this statement????

20. We all need more content training, especially about

reading instruction. Quality Instruction

21. We need better assessment of teachers so assignments

are more objectively based. Memo: There seems to be
an emerging pattern here that there is an issue. Perhaps Support, Evaluation, New
this belief is trying to get at the issue of some teachers versus Veteran
commitment, pay, perks, respect, etc.

22. Training is needed for new teachers Quality Instruction, New versus
Veteran
23. Some teachers are carrying the weight for other
teachers. Inequities

24. This school is very “turf” oriented. Conflict

25. There are a few “favorites” at each grade level. Respect

26. Communication needs improving. Memo: Another

general statement that could be about leadership, peer
interaction, or other issues.

27. Certain grade-levels are put on a pedestal. Equality

28. There are too many tests and assessments required. Quality Instruction,
Requirements
29. Too much red-tape is needed to get our supplies. Memo:
I coded this as respect because I felt that the comment Respect, Resources
had to do with trust and autonomy.

30. Teachers are often teaching the same things to different Requirements, Quality
grades. Instruction
 31. Grade level teams work against each other rather than
together. Inequities, Conflict

Step 2: Categorizing
To categorize the codes developed in Step 1, list the codes and group them by
similarity. Then, identify an appropriate label for each group. The following table
reflects the result of this activity.

Category Codes

Physical Surroundings Building

Resources Modernization Services
Technology resources
Instruction Instructional Quality
Requirements
Communication Uncertainty
Decision Making
Conflict
Lack of data
Instructional clarification
Peer Interaction Responsibilities
Equity
Conflict
New versus Veteran
Respect
Leadership Interaction
Support
Evaluation

Step 3: Identification of Themes

In this step, review the categories as well as the memos to determine the themes that
emerge. In the discussion below, three themes emerged from the synthesis of the
categories. Relevant quotes from the data are included that exemplify the essence of
the themes. These can be used in the discussion of findings. The relational matrix
demonstrates the pattern of thinking of the researcher as they engaged in this step in
the analysis. This is similar to an axial coding strategy.
Note that this set of data is limited and leaves some questions in mind. In a well-
developed study, this would just be a part of the data collected and there would be
other data sets and/or opportunities to clarify/verify some of the interpretations made
below. In addition, since there is no literature review or theoretical statement, there are
no reference points from which to draw interferences in the data. Some assumptions
were made for the purposes of this demonstration in these areas.

Theme 1: Professional Standing

Individual participants have articulated issues related to their own professional position.
They are concerned about what and when they will teach, their performance, and the
respect/prestige that they have within the school. For example, they are concerned
about both their physical environment and the steps that they have to take to ensure
that they have the up to date tools that they need. They are also concerned that their
efforts are being acknowledged, sometimes in relation to their peers and their beliefs
that they are more effective.
Selected quotes:

 Some teachers are carrying the weight for other teachers. (demonstrates that
they think that some of their peers are not qualified.)
 We need objective observations and feedback from the principal (demonstrates
that they are looking for acknowledgement for their efforts. Or this could be
interpreted as a belief that their peers who are less qualified should be
acknowledged).
 There is a lack of support for individual teachers

Theme 2: Group Dynamics and Collegiality

Rationale: There are groups or clicks that have formed. This seems to be the basis for
some of the conflict. This conflict is closely related to the status and professional
standing themes. This theme however, has more to do with the group issues while the
first theme is an individual perspective. Some teachers and/or subjects are seen as
more prestigious than others. Some of this is related to longevity. This creates jealously
and inhibits collegiality. This affects peer-interaction, instruction, and communication.
Selected quotes:

 Grade level teams work against each other rather than together.
 Each team of teachers has stereotypes about the other teams.
 There is a division between the old and new teachers

Theme 3: Leadership Issues

Rationale: There seems to be a lack of leadership and shared understanding of the
general direction in which the school will go. This is also reflected in a lack of two way
communications. There doesn’t seem to be information being offered by the leadership
of the school, nor does there seem to be an opportunity for individuals to share their
thoughts, let alone decision making. There seems to be a lack of intervention in the
conflict from leadership.
Selected quotes:
  Decisions are made on inaccurate information.
 We need consistent decisions about school rules

References
Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for
qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.