ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS UNIT-I

PN JUNCTION DEVICES
PART - B
PN junction diode: structure, operation & V-I characteristics
1. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias
And reverse bias and show the effects of temperature on its VI characteristics
(NOV/DEC 2012), (May / June 2016), (Nov / Dec 2015)
(OR)
Outline the charge carrier diffusion phenomenon across a PN junction. Explain the effect of
forward and reverse biasing on the depletion region. (Nov/Dec 2018 R-13) (April / May 2019-R17)

A PN junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor (Ge or Si) by diffusing p-type material
(Acceptor impurity Atoms) to one half side and N type material to (Donar Impurity Atoms) other half
side. The plane dividing the two zones is known as 'Junction'.

The P-region of the semiconductor contains a large number of holes and N region, contains a large
number of electrons. A PN junction just immediately formed is shown in Fig.

When PN junction is formed, there is a tendency for the electrons in the N-region to diffuse into the p-
region, and holes from P-region to N-region. This process is called diffusion. While crossing the junction,
the electrons and holes recombines with each other, leaving the immobile ions in the neighborhood of the
junction neutralized as shown in Fig.

These immobile + ve and –ve ions, set up a potential across the junction. This potential is called
potential barrier or junction barrier. Due to the potential barrier no further diffusion of electrons and holes
takes place across the junction. Potential barrier is defined as a potential difference built up across the PN
junction which restricts further movement of charge carriers across the junction. The potential barrier for
a silicon PN junction is about 0.7 volt, whereas for Germanium PN junction is approximately 0.3 volt.

Symbol of Diode:
The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in Fig. The P-type and N-type regions are referred to as Anode
and Cathode respectively. The arrowhead shows the conventional direction of current flow when the
diode is forward biased.
Working of PN Junction Diode:

Forward Bias:
When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the P-region and negative terminal to
the N-region, the PN junction is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig.

When the junction is forward biased, the holes in the p-region are repelled by the
positive terminal of the battery and are forced to move towards the junction. similarly, the electrons in the
N-region are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery and are forced to move towards the-junction.

This reduces the width of the depletion layer and barrier potential. If the applied voltage is greater than
the potential barrier vr, then the majority carriers namely holes in P-region and electrons in N-region,
cross the barrier. During crossing some of the charges get neutralized the remaining charges after
crossing, reach the other side and constitute current in the forward direction. The PN junction offers very
low resistance under forward biased condition.

Since the barrier potential is very small (nearly 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium junction), a
small forward voltage is enough to completely eliminate the barrier. once the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage, a large current start flowing through the PN junction.

Reverse Bias:

When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the N-region and negative terminal to
the p-region, the PN junction is said to be reverse biased. When the junction is reverse biased, the holes in
the P-region are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery. Similarly, the electrons in the N-region
are attracted by the positive terminal of the external battery. This increases the width of the depletion
layer and barrier potential (Vs).

The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse across the
junction. Thus, there is no current due to majority carriers in a reverse biased PN junction. In other words,
the PN junction offers very high resistance under reverse biased condition.

In a reverse biased PN junction, a small amount of current (in µA) flows through the junction because of
minority carriers. ( i.e., electrons in the P-region and holes in the N region).The reverse current is small
because the number of majority carrier in both regions is small.

V-l characteristics of PN-Junction Diode:

A graph between the voltage applied across the PN junction and the current flowing through the junction
is called the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode. Fig. shows the V-I characteristics of PN junction
diode.

Forward Characteristics:
Fig. (a) shows the circuit arrangement for drawing the forward V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.
To apply a forward bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to Anode (A) and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to Cathode (K). Now, when supply voltage is increased the circuit
current increases very slowly and the curve is nonlinear (region-OA).

The slow rise in current in this region is because the external applied voltage is used to overcome the
barrier potential (0.7 V for Si; 0.3V for Ge ) of the PN junction' However once the potential barrier is
eliminated and the external supply voltage is increased further, the current flowing through the PN
junction diode increases rapidly (region AB). This region of the curve is almost linear. The applied
voltage should not be increased beyond a certain safe limit, otherwise the diode will burnout.

The forward voltage at which the current through the PN junction starts increasing rapidly is called by
knee voltage. It is denoted by the letter VB.
 Reverse Characteristics:

Fig (b) shows the circuit arrangement for drawing the reverse V-I characteristics of PN junction diode. To
apply a reverse bias, the +ve terminal of the battery is connected to cathode (K) and - ve terminal of the
battery is connected to anode (A).

Under this condition the potential buried at the junction is increased. Therefore, the junction resistance
becomes very high and practically no. current flows through the circuit. However, in actual practice, a
very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit. This current is called reverse current and is
due to minority carriers. It is also called as reverse saturation current (I). The reverse current increases
slightly with the increase in reverse bias supply voltage.

If the reverse voltage is increased continuously at one state (marked by point C on the reverse
characteristics) breakdown of junction occurs and the resistance of the barrier regions falls suddenly.
Consequently, the reverse current increases rapidly (as shown by the curve CD in the current) to a large
value. This may destroy the junction permanently. The reverse voltage at which the PN junction breaks is
called as break down voltage.

Temperature effects
The cut in voltage decreases as the temperature increases. The reverse saturation current increases.
𝐼 = (∆𝑇⁄
02 2 10) 𝐼01

𝐼01,𝐼02 are the reverse current at T1◦C, T2◦C

∆𝑇 = T2- T1.
The voltage equivalent of temperature VT also increases. The reverse breakdown voltage increases.

2. Derive the PN diode current equation.

The applied voltage and current though diode are related by the equation
𝑉⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑦𝑉𝑇 − 1)

Where,

Io = Reverse saturation current

V = Applied voltage
I = Diode current
VT = Volt equivalent temperature
𝑘̅𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞
𝑘̅= 1.38*10-23 J/K
T = temperature of the diode junction
I = diode current
Q = change of electron 1.602*10-19 C
At any temperature
 𝑘̅𝑇 1.38 × 10−23 𝑇
𝑉𝑇 = = =
𝑞 1.602 × 10−19 11600
At room temperature
300
𝑉𝑇 = = 26𝑚𝑉
11600
The value of η=1 for germanium and 2 for silicon.

For forward bias voltage the current equation reduces to

𝑉⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑦𝑉 )
𝑇

At room temperature for germanium transistor

𝐼 = 𝐼0(𝑒40)

When the diode is reverse biased

𝑉⁄
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑦𝑉𝑇 − 1)

𝐼 ≅ 𝐼0

Diffusion and transient capacitance

3. Explain diffusion and transition capacitance of diode

Depletion layer capacitance (or) transition capacitance (or) space charge capacitance (May / June
2016)(Nov/Dec 2016)(May 2017)

• When a PN junction is reverse biased, a layer of positive and negative immobile ions, called depletion
layer, is formed on either side of the junction. It is also known as depletion-region, space-charge region or
transition region. The depletion-layer acts as a dielectric (i.e., non-conductive) medium between P-region
and N-region. We know that the P-region and N-region on either side of the junction, has a low
resistance. Therefore, these regions act as two plates of a capacitor, separated by a dielectric (i.e.,
depletion layer) as shown in Fig.

The capacitance formed in a junction area is called depletion layer capacitance. It is also called depletion
region-capacitance, space charge capacitance, transition region capacitance or simply junction
capacitance.

• Since the depletion layer width (d) increases with the increase in reverse bias voltage, the resulting
depletion layer capacitance will decrease with the increased reverse bias.

• The depletion layer capacitance depends upon the nature of a PN junction, semiconductor material and
magnitude of the applied reverse voltage. It is given by the relation,
Where
K = A constant, depending upon the nature of semiconductor material
VB = barrier voltage. 0.6V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium
V = applied reverse voltage
n a constant depending upon the nature of junction.
The value of the K is

• The value of ‘n’ is taken as 1/2 for step or abrupt junction, 1/3 for linearly graded junction.

• It is the evident from the above relation that the value of depletion layer capacitance (CT) can be
controlled by varying the applied reverse voltage. This property of variable capacitance, possessed by
reverse biased PN junction, is used in the concentration of a device called varactor.
Reverse biased.

Derivation:

Connection P side is less

Doping less in P side (NA)
N side (ND)
Potential & change density Relation
N < N d 2V 1
A D dX 2
X – distance measured from junction
𝜀 → 𝜀𝑜𝜀𝑟
d 2V qND ----------------
N <N = 2
A D dX 2 𝗌
Integrating 2
d 2V qND
∫ = ∫
dx2 ε
dv qNAX
=
dx ε
To get potential from 0 to w
VB w
dv qNAX
∫ =∫ dx
o dx o ε
Where V=VB
X=w
 qNA w2 --------------------------
V = × 3
B 𝗌 2
W=√VB
Q=No of change particle × change on each particle
=(NA × volume) × q
Q=qNAAW 2
Diff 3 w.r.to V
qNA w2
VB = ×
ε 2
qNA 1 dw
1= × 2w
𝗌 2 dv
dw ε
=
dv qNAw
Diff 2
dQ dw
= qNAA
dv dv
ε Aε
CT = qNAA =
qN Aw w

Ex : Varactor diode (or) Tuning diode

Diffusion capacitance 𝐂𝐃:(May 2017)

The junction behaves like a capacitor. The capacitance, which exists in a forward-biased junction is called
a diffusion or storage capacitance. It is different from the transition or depletion layer capacitance, which
exists in a reverse-biased junction. The diffusion capacitance arises due to the arrangement of minority
carrier density. And its value is much larger than the depletion layer capacitance.
Width of depletion region ↓ As applied voltage ↑, the concentration of injected charged particle also
increases. This rate of change of injected change with applied voltage is capacitance.
𝑟 = mean lifetime of the carrier
I = value of forward current
𝜂 = A constant (1 for Ge and 2 for Si)
VT=volt equivalent of temperature.
dQ
CD =
dv

CDis >CT
I=Ipn(0) + Inp (0)
Ipn(0) → hole diffusion current n region
Inp (0) → electron diffusion current in p region
 Inp (0) ⋍ 0
P side heavily doped
dpn
Jp(X) = −qDp
dx
I
J=
A
dp
n ------------------------
Ip(X)=−qADp dX 1
Pn(X) = Pn(0)e−X/LP--------------------------- 2
Hole concentration in the right side of p material Pn(0) ie junction
Diff 2
dpn(x) = P e 1
−X/LP ( )
n(0)
dx LP
Ip(X)=−qADpPn(0)e −X/L P . -1/LP
At x=0 Ip(X)=Ipn(0)=I
QADP
I= Pn (0)
LP
IL
Pn(0) = P A
QADP
Now the excess minority charge exists only on n side and given by
Q=∫0∞ Aq Pn(0)e−X/LP dx
∞
e−X/LP
=AqPn(0) [ −1 ]
LP
0
=AqLpPn(0)[e−∞ − e−0]
Q=−AqLpPn(0)
Q=AqLpPn(0)------------------B
Put A in B
AqLpILP L 2
Q= = P .I
qADp Dp
Assume
LP2
=𝑟
Dp
dQ
Q=𝑟I ⇒ = 𝑟
dI
W.K.T
dQ dI
CD = .
dI dV
dI
CD = 𝑟.
dV
I = Io(eV/DVT)
dI 1
= I.
dV ηVT
I
CD = 𝑟.
ηVT
It is evident from the above relation, that diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the forward
current (I).
 Rectifiers – Half Wave and Full Wave

Half Wave
4. What is halfwave rectifier? Explain the working principle with neat sketch? (Nov / Dec 2015)
(Nov/Dec 2016)
Rectifiers are a class of circuits whose purpose is to convert ac waveforms (usually sinusoidal
and with zero average value) into a waveform that has a significant non-zero average value (dc
component). Simply stated, rectifiers are ac-to-dc energy converter circuits. Most rectifier circuits employ
diodes as the principal elements in the energy conversion process; thus, the almost inseparable notions of
diodes and rectifiers.

Uncontrolled rectifier: uncontrolled refers to the absence of any control signal necessary to operate the
primary switching elements (diodes) in the rectifier circuit. (The discussion of controlled rectifier circuits,
and the controlled switches themselves, is more appropriate in the context of power electronics
applications). Rectifiers are the fundamental building block in dc power supplies of all types and in dc
power transmission used by some electric utilities.

There are two types of rectifiers:

(a) Half Wave (HW) rectifier (b) Full Wave (FW) rectifier

Half -wave Rectifier:

It consists of a single diode in series with a load resistor. The input to half wave rectifier is supplied from
the 50 Hz a.c supply. The circuit diagram for halfwave rectifier is shown in fig.

Positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle of the input signal the anode of the diode becomes positive with respect to
the cathode and hence the diode D conducts. For an ideal to the cathode and hence the diode D conducts.
For an ideal diode, the forward voltage drop is zero. So the whole-input voltage will appear across load
resistance RL.
Negative half cycle:
During negative half cycle of the input signal, the anode of the diode becomes negative with respective to
the cathode and hence the diode D does not contact. For an ideal diode the impedance by the diode is
infinity. So the whole input voltage appears across the diode D. hence the voltage drop across R, is zero.

Analysis of Half wave rectifier:

Let Vi be the input voltage to the rectifier

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where,
𝑉𝑚 = Maximum value of the input voltage.
Let I be the current flowing though the circuit when the diode is conducting.
𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
𝑖={ }
0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
Where
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿
Where
𝑅𝐹-Forward dynamic resistance of diode.
𝑅𝐿-Load resistance.

(a) Average or DC value of output current (Idc):

From Fig., it is seen that the output current is not steady but contains fluctuations even though it is DC
current. The average value of this fluctuating current is called DC current (Idc). It can be calculated as
follows.

Average value = (Area under the curve / Period )

1 2π
Idc = ∫ i d(ωt)
2π 0
1 π
Idc = [∫ Im ∗ sinωt d(ωt)]
2π 0
1 Im Im Im
I = [−cosωt]π = [−cosπ − (−cos0)] = [−(−1) − (−1)] =
dc
2π 0 2π 2π π
Vm
Idc =
π(R F + RL)

(b) Average or DC output voltage (Vo):

Im Vm
Vdc = × RL =
π π
(c) RMS value of output current (Irms):
π
1 π2 1 π 2 2 Im 2 1 − cos2ωt
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =√ ∫ i d(ωt) = √ ∫ I m sin ωt ∗ d(ωt) = √ ∫ ( ) ∗ d(ωt)
2π 0 2π 0 2π 0 2
 π
2 π π 2 sin2ωt
= √Im ∫ d(ωt) − ∫ cos2(ωt) ∗ d(ωt) = √ Im [ωtπ − ( ) ]
4π 0 0 4π 0 2 0

2 sin2π sin0 2 Im2 Im

= √ I m [(π − 0) − ( − )] = √ I m [(π − 0) − 0] = √ =
4π 2 2 4π 4π 2

(d) Rectification Efficiency (η):

Im2 2
×R 2
I 2 ×R π
Rectification efficiency (η) = dc 2 L =I L Im /π ×RL 4 = 0.406
Irms ×RL
2
m ×R = Im2/4×RL
= π2
2 L

(e) Ripple Factor (γ):

I′ I2 − I2 I 2 I rms/2 2 π2
𝗒= rms rms dc rms − 1 = √( ) − 1 = √ − 1 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏
=√ 2 = √( )
Idc Idc Idc Im/π 4

(f) Peak inverse Voltage (PIV):

Peak inverse voltage is defined as the maximum voltage that is applied across the
Diode when the diode is reverse biased. [n case of half wave rectifier, maximum
Voltage across the diode when it is not conducting is equal to Vm.
𝑷𝑰𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎
(g) From factor:

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝜋
𝐹𝐹 = = = 1.57
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 2
(h) Peak factor:

𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝐹 = 𝑉 = 2
( 𝑚)
2
(i) Transformer utilization factor:
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 0.287
𝑃𝑎𝑐

Disadvantages of HWR:
➢ Low output because one half cycle only delivers output
➢ A.C. component more in the output
➢ Requires heavy filter circuits to smooth out the output Peak inverse Voltage.
 Rectifiers – Full Wave using center tap Transformer
5. Explain the operation of full wave rectifier with center tap transformer. Also derive the following
for this rectifier. (Apr/May 2018)

i) DC output voltage (average value) ii) DC output current (average value) iii) RMS
output voltage.

In FWR, current flows through the load during both half cycles of the input a.c. supply. Like the
half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current which is purely DC or
has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half
wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of
the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother
output waveform.

Full Wave Rectifier:

A full wave rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using
both half cycles of the applied AC voltage. A full wave rectifier is a circuit which allows a unidirectional
current to flow through the load during the entire input cycle as shown in fig. The result of full wave
rectification is a d.c. output voltage that pulsates every half-cycle of the input. On the other hand a half
wave rectifier allows the current to flow through the load during positive half-cycle only.

Positive half cycle:

The circuit uses two diodes which are connected to secondary winding of the transformer. The input
signal is applied to the primary winding of the transformer. During the positive input half cycle, the
polarities of the secondary voltage is shown in fig. This forward bias the diode D, and reverse biases the
diode D1. As a result of this, the diode D, conducts some current whereas the diode D, is off.

The current through load R1 is as indicated in through D1, and the voltage Drop across RL will the fig.
The load current flows be equal to the input voltage.
Negative half cycle:

During the negative input half cycle, the polarities of the secondary voltage are interchanged. The
reverse-bias the diode D, and forward Biases the diode D2. As a result of this, the diode D1 is OFF and the
diode D2 conducts some current. The current through the load R, is an indicated in the fig. The load
current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across R1 will be equal to the input voltage. The maximum
efficiency of a fall-wave rectifier is 8l,2℅Vo and ripple factor is 0.48.

Analysis of Full Wave Rectifier:

Let Vi be the input voltage to the rectifier, 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Where, 𝑉𝑚 = Maximum value of the input voltage.
Let I be the current flowing though the circuit when the diode is conducting.
𝐼𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
𝑖={ 0 }
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑉
Where, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡; = 𝑚
𝑅𝐹+𝑅𝐿
𝐼𝑚
Where, 𝑅𝐹-Forward dynamic resistance of diode; 𝑅𝐿-Load resistance.

Input and output waveforms:

(a) Average or DC value of output current ( Idc ):

Average value = (Area under the curve / Period )

1 π
Idc = ∫ i d(ωt)
π 0
1 π
Idc = [∫ Im ∗ sinωt d(ωt)]
π 0
1 π Im Im 2Im
I = [−cosωt] = [−cosπ − (−cos0)] = [−(−1) − (−1)] =
dc 0
π π π π
2Vm
Idc =
π(RF + RL)

(b) Average or DC value of output voltage ( Vdc ) :

2Im 2Vm
Vdc = × RL =
π π

(c) RMS value of output current (Irms):

π
1 π2 1 π 2 2 Im 2 1 − cos2ωt
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ ∫ i d(ωt) = √ ∫ Im sin ωt ∗ d(ωt) = √ ∫ ( ) ∗ d(ωt)
π 0 π 0 π 0 2
π
2 π π 2 sin2ωt
= √Im ∫ d(ωt) − ∫ cos2(ωt) ∗ d(ωt) = √ Im [ωtπ − ( ) ]
2π 0 0 2π 0 2 0

2 sin2π sin0 2 Im2 Im

= √ Im [(π − 0) − ( − )] = √ Im [(π − 0) − 0] = √ =
2π 2 2 2π 2 √2

(d) Rectification Efficiency (η):

Idc2 ×RL 2Im2 2 2

π ×R
Rectification efficiency (η) = 2
= L
=
4Im /π ×RL
=
0.812 =
R
81.2%
Irms ×RL Im 2 Im2/2×RL (1+ F)
×R L RL
√2

(e) Ripple Factor (γ):

RMS value of Ac component I 2 I /√2 2 π2

m
) − 1 = √( ) − 1 = √ − 1 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
rms
𝗒= = √(
Dc value of wave Idc 2Im/π 8

(f) Peak inverse Voltage (PlV):

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum possible voltage across a diode when it is not
conducting. During positive half cycle of the AC input voltage Diode D1, is conducting and Diode D, is
not conducting. In this case a voltage V, is developed across the load resistor R 1. Now the voltage across
the non-conducting Diode D, is the sum of the voltage across R1 and voltage across the lower half of
transformer secondary Vm.
Hence, PIV of Diode D2 = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Similary, PIV of Diode D1 = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
Advantages:
1. The D.c load voltage and current are more than halfwave.
2. No D.c current thro transformer windings hence no possibility of saturation.
3. TUF is better.
4. Efficiency is higher.
5. Ripple factor less.

Disadvantages:
1. PIV rating of diode is higher
2. Higher PIV diodes are larger in size ad costlier.
3. Cost of transformer is high.
 ZENER DIODE
10. Explain the construction & working principle of Zener diode.
Explain the Break down mechanisms in semiconductor devices. (May/June 2016), (Nov / Dec 2015)
(OR) Explain the Concept of Zener Breakdown and its VI characteristics. (Nov/Dec 2018-R-13)

ZENER DIODE:
The Zener Diode is a PN junction semiconductor device.
It is fabricated with precise breakdown voltages, by controlling the doping level during manufacturing.
Practically, Zener Diodes are operated in reverse biased mode.

Fig.20 Zener Diode

CHARACTERISITCS OF ZENER DIODE:

FORWARD CHARACTERISITCS:

In forward biased condition, the normal rectifier diode and the Zener diode operate in similar fashion.
(Refer: PN diode forward characteristics)

Zener reverse characteristics

REVERSE CHARACTERISITCS:

Zener diode is designed to operate in the reverse biased condition.

In reverse biased condition, the diode carries reverse saturation current till the reverse voltage applied is
less than the reverse breakdown voltage.

When the reverse voltage exceeds reverse breakdown voltage, the current through it changes drastically
but the voltage across it remains almost constant.

Such a breakdown region is a normal operating region for a Zener diode.

The normal operating regions for both diode and Zener are shown in below Fig.
 Fig. The normal operating region for a rectifier diode and Zener diode
When the applied reverse voltage is increased then, the current through it is very small (few µA) and it is called
Reverse Leakage Current (Io)
At certain reverse voltage, the current will increase rapidly. The breakdown occurs and the current at this point
(knee or Zener knee) is called Zener knee current (IZK or IZmin).
Zener knee current is the minimum Zener current which is must to carry out the operate in Reverse Breakdown
Region.
The reverse voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called Zener Breakdown Voltage or Zener Voltage (VZ).
The VZ is set by controlling the doping level during manufacturing process.

Below the knee, the reverse breakdown voltage increases slightly as Zener current (IZ) increases but, remains
almost CONSTANT.
The current at which the nominal Zener breakdown voltage is specified is called Zener Test Current (IZT).

As the current increases, the power dissipation (PZ = VZ IZ) will be increased and if this power dissipation is
increased beyond a certain current value, the Zener diode may get damaged. So, there is a maximum current that a
Zener diode can carry safely is called Zener Maximum Current (IZM or IZmax).

In practical circuits, a current limiting resistor is used in series with Zener diode in order to limit the current
between IZmin to IZmax.

The complete VI characteristics of Zener Diode is shown in Fig.

Fig. VI characteristics of Zener Diode

BREAKDOWN MECHANISM IN ZENER DIODE:

Two distinct breakdown mechanism:

✓ Zener Breakdown
✓ Avalanche Breakdown

For devices with breakdown voltage less than 5V - Zener Breakdown

For devices with breakdown voltage between 5V and 8V - Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown
For devices with breakdown voltage above 8V - Avalanche Breakdown

ZENER BREAKDOWN:
Zener breakdown occurs at Reverse biased condition because of heavy doping;
Practically, Zener breakdown is observed in the Zener diodes with breakdown voltage less than 6V.
In Zener breakdown, the value of the breakdown voltage decreases as PN junction temperature increases, i.e.
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)

For applied reverse biased voltage of less than 6V causes a high magnitude electric
field (3 X 105 V/cm) across the depletion region, at the PN junction.
This electric field applies a large force on the valence electron of the atom, tending it
to separate them from their respective nuclei. Electron-hole pairs are generated in
large numbers and there will be a sudden increase in current. (To limit this current, a
current limiting resistor is used in order to protect the Zener diode from being
destroyed because of excessive heating at the junction)

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN:
Avalanche Breakdown occurs at Reverse biased condition due to ionization of electron and hole pairs
Practically, Avalanche breakdown is observed in the Zener diodes with breakdown voltage greater than 6V.
In avalanche breakdown, the value of the breakdown voltage increases as PN junction temperature increases, i.e.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)

For applied reverse biased voltage of greater than 6V causes increased acceleration
of minority charge particles. Thus, collision between accelerated charge particles
with high velocity and kinetic energy with adjacent atom is involved in breaking the
covalent bonds of the crystal structure. This process is called Carrier
Multiplication.
At this stage, junction is said to be in breakdown and current starts increasing
rapidly. To limit this current below IZmax, a current limiting resistor is necessary.

Fig. Breakdown Mechanism in Zener Diode

 ZENER AS REGULATOR
11. (a) Explain the working of a Zener diode as a regulator? (May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017) (Nov/Dec
2018 – R17)

The Zener Diode is used to regulate the Load Voltage. Here, the Zener is used in reverse biased condition.

Fig. Zener Diode as a shunt regulator

{Under reverse biased condition, the current through the zener

diode is very small of the order of few µA, up to certain limit.
When enough reverse bias voltage is applied, electrical
breakdown occurs and large current flows through the zener
diode. The voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called
Zener Voltage (VZ). Fig. VI characteristics of Zener Diode
Under this condition, whatever may be the current, the voltage across the Zener is constant and equal to
VZ}

Since, voltage across the Zener Diode is CONSTANT & equal to VZ, it is connected across the load.
⸫ The Load Voltage (Vo) is equal to Zener Voltage (VZ).
i.e. The Zener Diode acts as an ideal voltage source which maintains a constant load voltage,
independent of the current.

REGULATION WITH VARYING INPUT VOLTAGE (Line Regulation)

Zener Regulator under varying input voltage condition is
shown in Fig.

Vo = VZ is constant
𝑉
IL = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
And 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐿
Fig. Varying input condition

As long 𝑰𝒁 is between 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 and 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 , the VZ i.e. output voltage Vo is constant. Thus, the changes
in the input voltage is get compensated and output is maintained constant.
The maximum power dissipation for the zener diode is fixed, 𝑷𝑫 = 𝑽𝒁 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙
REGULATION WITH VARYING LOAD (Load Regulation)
Zener Regulator under varying load condition (RL is variable) and constant input voltage (Vin is constant)
is shown in Fig.

Fig. Varying load condition

Vo = VZ is constant and Vin is Constant, then for constant R, the current (I) is
constant.
I𝑉𝑖𝑛=−𝑉𝑍 (constant); I = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑍
𝑅

As long 𝑰𝒁 is between 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 and 𝑰𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 , the VZ i.e. output voltage Vo is constant. Thus, the changes
in the load is get compensated and output is maintained constant.
 UJT (UNIJUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR)

7. (a) Explain the construction operation and characteristics of UJT? (May/June2016), (Nov/Dec2015)
(Nov/Dec 2018)
(b) Describe the operation of UJT as a relaxation oscillator and derive its frequency of oscillation?
(Nov/Dec 2016)

(A) UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

Construction:

B2 B2
Eta-point +
B2
RB2
Eta-point
RB2
p-type
E
A A VBB
E
E +
RB1
n-type RB1
Ve Ie
VBB

- -

B1 B1 B1
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.: (a) Basic structure of UJT (b) Symbolic representation (c) Equivalent circuit

UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals base1, base2 and
emitter ‘E’. Between B1 and B2 UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the internal resistances are given as RB1
and RB 2 with emitter open RB B = RB1 + RB 2 . Usually the p-region is heavily doped and n-region is lightly doped.
The equivalent circuit of UJT is as shown. When VBB is applied across B1 and B2 , we find that potential at A is
VBB RB1 = V  = RB1 
V =  
BB  R +R
AB1
R +R
B1 B2  B1 B2 

 is intrinsic standoff ratio of UJT and ranges between 0.51 and 0.82. Resistor RB 2 is between 5 to
10K.

25
 OPERATION

When voltage VBB is applied between emitter ‘E’ with base 1 B1 as reference and the emitter voltage VE
is less than (VD +VBE ) the UJT does not conduct. (VD +VBB ) is designated as VP which is the value of
voltage required to turn on the UJT. Once VE is equal to VP  VBE +VD , then UJT is forward biased and
it conducts.

The peak point is the point at which peak current IP flows and the peak voltage VP is across the UJT.
After peak point the current increases but voltage across device drops, this is due to the fact that emitter
starts to inject holes into the lower doped n-region. Since p-region is heavily doped compared to n-region.
Also holes have a longer life time, therefore number of carriers in the base region increases rapidly. Thus
potential at ‘A’ falls but current IE increases rapidly. RB1 Acts as a decreasing resistance.

The negative resistance region of UJT is between peak point and valley point. After valley point, the
device acts as a normal diode since the base region is saturated and RB1 does not decrease again.

Negative Resistance
Region
Ve
Cutoff Saturation
region region
VBB
R load line
Vp
Peak Point

Valley Point

Vv

0 Ip Iv Ie

Fig.: V-I Characteristics of UJT

(B) Operation of UJT as a relaxation oscillator and its derivation- frequency of oscillation. (Nov 2016)

UJT as a relaxation oscillator consists of UJT and a capacitor CE which is charged through RE as the
supply voltage VBB is switched ON. The voltage across the capacitor increases exponentially and when
the capacitor voltage reaches the peak point voltage Vp, the UJT starts conducting and the capacitor
voltage is discharged rapidly through EB1 and R1.After the peak point voltage of UJT is reached, it
provides negative resistance to the discharge path which is useful in working of the relaxation oscillator.
As the capacitor voltage reaches zero the device then cuts off and capacitor CE starts to charge again. This
cycle is repeated continuously generating a saw tooth waveform across CE.

The inclusion of external resistors R2 and R1 in series with B2 and B1 provides spike waveform. When the
UJT fires, the sudden surge of current through B1 causes drop across R1,which provides positive spikes.
At the time of firing fall of VEB1 causes I2 to increases rapidly which generates negative going spikes
across R2.

By changing the value of RE and CE the frequency of oscillation changes.

Additional Questions: PART-A
1. Define valence electron.
Electrons that are in shells close to nucleus are tightly bounced to the atom and have low energy. Whereas
electrons that are in shells farther from the nucleus have large energy and less tightly bound to the atom.
Electrons with highest energy level exist in the outermost shell of an atom. These electrons determine the
electrical and chemical characteristic of each particular type of atom. These electrons are known as valence
electrons.

2. What is meant by energy band?

In a single isolated atom, the electron in any orbit possesses define energy. Due to an interaction between atoms
the electrons in a particular orbit of one atom have slightly different energy levels from electrons in the same
orbit of an adjoining atom. This is due to the fact that no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of
surrounding charges. Since there are billions of electrons in any orbit, slightly different energy levels form a
cluster or band known as energy band.

3. Define conduction band & valence band.

o The conduction band is defined as the range of energies possessed by conduction electrons.
o Valence band is defined as the range of energies possessed by valence electros.

4. What are conductors, Insulators and semiconductors?

o A conductor is a material, which easily allows the flow of electric current. The best conductors are copper,
silver, gold and aluminum.
o An Insulator is a material that does not conduct electric current. In these materials valence electrons are
tightly bound to the atoms.
o A semiconductor is a material that has an electrical conductivity that lies between conductors and
insulators. A semiconductor in it’s pure state is neither a good conductor not a good insulator. The most
common semiconductors are silicon, Germanium, and carbon.

5. What are the classifications of semiconductors?

Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. A pure semiconductor is called
intrinsic semiconductor. A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.

6. What is meant by doping? How the extrinsic semiconductors are classified?

The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping.
o n-type semiconductor
o p-type semiconductor

7. How a n-type semiconductor & p-type semiconductor can be obtained?

o A n-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding pentavalent impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor. These are atoms with five valence electrons. Typical examples for pentavalent atoms
are Arsenic. Phosphorous, Bismuth and Antimony.

o A p-type semiconductor can be obtained by adding trivalent impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor.

These are atoms with three valence electrons. Typical examples for trivalent atoms are boron(B),
indium (In) and gallium (Ga).

8. Define Fermi level.

Fermi level is the energy at which the probability of occupation by an electron is exactly 0.5.

9. What is the energy band gap of silicon and Germanium at 300°K?

For Germanium: 0.66e and for Silicon: 1.12ev
10. What are the different types of voltage regulators?
Based on how regulating element is connected to the load, voltage regulators are classified as
o Series regulator
o Shunt regulator
o Switch-mode regulators or switched mode power supply (SMPS)