PART-A

1.Define
1) Fluid:
 A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing if allowed to do so.
 A fluid is a substance that has no definite shape of its own, but
conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2) Real and ideal fluids:
 It is a fluid which offers resistance when it is set in motion. All
naturally occurring fluids are real fluids.
 An ideal fluid is the one which does not offer resistance to flow
/changes in shape.
3) Mass density and specific gravity:
 Mass density of fluid is the mass of fluid per unit volume. In SI
system it is expressed in kg/ . The mass density of pure water at
277 k is taken as 1000 kg/ .
 The specific gravity of fluid is a ratio of the density of the fluid to
density of a standard fluid.
4) Viscosity:
 A fluid undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to a shear
stress. The resistance offered by a fluid to its continuous deformation
is called viscosity.
5) Specific gravity:
 The specific gravity of fluid is a ratio of the density of the fluid to
density of a standard fluid.
6) Kinematic viscosity:
 The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of the viscosity to the
density of the fluid. It has unit of /s.
7) Velocity gradient:
 Velocity gradient is the rate of change of velocity in relation to
spatial coordinates. It's the difference in velocity between layers of a
fluid, and is represented by the equation / , where is velocity and
is the distance between layers.
8) Boundary layer:
 The boundary layer is the region of fluid near a surface where the
fluid's flow is affected by the surface's friction.
9) Laminar boundary layer:
 A laminar boundary layer is a smooth layer of fluid that forms when
a viscous fluid moves past a solid surface.
10) Turbulent laminar layer:
 A turbulent boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid near a surface
where the flow is chaotic and irregular.
11) Laminar sub layer:
 A laminar sublayer is a thin layer of fluid near a solid boundary
where the flow is laminar, or smooth and orderly, with low
turbulence. It's also known as the viscous sublayer.
12) Absolute pressure:
 It is the pressure prevailing in a vessel /pipe line/ process equipment.
It is the true/ actual pressure or pressure above reference zero.
13) Gauge pressure:
 Normally, the pressure is measured with help of a pressure gauge.
The pressure gauge measures the pressure above the atmospheric
pressure. Thus, the pressure on the gauge scale is marked as zero.
The pressure registered by the pressure gauge is called the gauge
pressure.
14) Pump:
 A pump is a machine which converts mechanical energy supplied to
it from some external source into pressure energy which is used to
lift a liquid from a lower level to higher level.
 A pump is a machine used for moving liquids, solution or slurries by
mechanical means.
15) Rotodynamic pump:
 A rotodynamic pump is a mechanical device that uses a rotating part,
like a propeller, impeller, or rotor, to increase the kinetic energy of a
fluid.
16) Positive displacement pump:
 A positive displacement pump is a mechanical device that moves a
known amount of liquid for each cycle or revolution it completes.
 The flow rate of a PD pump is directly proportional to its speed and
the number of cycles it completes over a given time.
 17) Cavitation in pump:
 The vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure at which the liquid is
converted into vapour at a given temperature. If the pressure in the
suction line is less than the vapour pressure of the liquid, then some
of the liquid flashes into vapour. This phenomenon is called
cavitation.
2. State newton’s law of viscosity.
 It states that the shear stress on a layer of a fluid is directly
proportional to the rate of shear. Mathematically,
τ = μ.

3. Name the types of fluids.

 Based on resistance offered by fluids for their flow, the fluids are
classified as:
1. Ideal fluids
2. Real/actual fluid
 Ideal fluids: An ideal fluid is the one which does not offer resistance
to flow /changes in shape.
 Real fluids: It is a fluid which offers resistance when it is set in
motion. All naturally occurring fluids are real fluids.
4. What is continuity equation?
 When a fluid is in motion, it must move in such a way that its mass is
conserved along a flow path.
 If a fluid is continuously flowing through a pipe of constant or varying
cross sectional area, the quantity of the fluid passing per second on
weight basis is same at all locations of the pipe. Mathematically
= constant. This is known as equation of continuity.
5. Define Bernoulli’s equation with assumption.
 Bernoulli’s equation states that for an incompressible, steady and inviscid
fluid flow, the total mechanical energy of the fluid is constant.
 Bernoulli’s equation states that for a incompressible fluid flowing steadily
through a pipe, the total mechanical energy of the fluid remains the same,
while the fluid moves from one location to another in the pipe. The
mathematical statement of Bernoulli’s equation is: +Z+ = constant.
6. what is pitot tube?
 It is a device used to measure the local or point velocity by measuring the
difference between impact pressure and static pressure.
 The orifice meter and venturi meter measure the average velocity of the
entire fluid stream, whereas the pitot tube measures the velocity at one
point only.
8. what are properties of Newtonian fluids?
Newtonian fluids have following properties:
 Linear relationship: the shear stress and shear rate of a Newtonian
fluid have a linear relationship.
 Constant viscosity: The viscosity of Newtonian fluid remains
constant at a given temperature and pressure.
 Predictable flow: Newtonian fluid flow in a consistent manner,
making them easy to analyse mathematically.
 Isotropic behaviour: In some cases, Newtonian fluids have
isotropic behaviour, meaning their mechanical properties are same
in all direction.
 Non-compressible: Newtonian fluids are non-compressible.
 Unreactive: Newtonian fluid are unreactive.
9. What do you mean by viscous flow?
 Viscous flow is a type of fluid motion where the effects of viscosity are
dominant, causing the fluid to flow in layers.
 Example: Viscous flow is commonly seen in slow-moving fluids like
honey or syrup.
10. What is loss of head due to friction?
 Loss of head due to friction, also known as friction loss, is the reduction
in a fluid's total head as it moves through a pipe. This loss is caused by
the friction between the fluid and the pipe's inner surface, which slows
down the flow and causes a pressure drop.
 The Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to calculate the head loss due to
friction in a pipe:
=f ( ) ( )
: Head loss (m)
: Friction factor
: Length of pipe work (m)
 : Inner diameter of pipe work (m)
: Velocity of fluid (m/s)
: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
11. Write down example of laminar flow / viscous flow.
Laminar flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs when viscous forces are
greater than inertial forces. Examples of laminar flow include:
 Blood flow: Blood circulation throughout the body is an example of
laminar flow.
 Airflow over an aircraft wing: The air flowing over the wing of an
aircraft is laminar. The pressure difference between the front and back of
the wing allows the plane to lift.
 Dripping honey: The high viscosity of honey allows it to drip smoothly.
 Faucet flow: When a faucet is turned on just slightly, the flow is usually
laminar.
Viscous flow is a type of fluid flow that can be observed in
biofilms. When subjected to shear stresses, biofilms behave like viscoelastic
fluids and exhibit viscous flow.
12. What are characteristics of laminar flow?
 Laminar flow is a smooth, orderly flow of fluid in parallel layers, with
minimal mixing or turbulence. Some characteristics of laminar flow
include:
 Reynolds number: Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number in a
pipe is below a certain critical value.
 Viscosity: Viscosity is an important part of laminar flow, which is also
known as viscous flow.
 Velocity: The velocity of the fluid remains constant along any given
streamline in laminar flow.
 Flow rate: Laminar flow provides precise control over the flow rate.
13. write darcy-weisbach equation.
 The darcy weisbach equation that relates the pressure loss/drop or head
loss due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of
the fluid flow through a circular pipe for an incompressible fluid is a
given as:
 ΔP =

Where,
ΔP = pressure loss
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
u = velocity of flowing fluid
ρ = density of fluid
= Darcy friction factor
14. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow.
 Viscosity: The thickness of the fluid affects how much resistance it
faces. Fluids with higher viscosity are more likely to experience friction
loss.
 Pipe diameter: The smaller the diameter, the more friction loss there is
because the fluid has less surface to run over.
 Pipe roughness: Rougher pipes require more effort for fluids to move
around them, which increases friction loss. Internal corrosion or buildup
can cause this.
 Pipe length: The further the fluid has to travel, the more friction loss
there is.
 Pipe slope: Changes in elevation can force liquids to work against
gravity, which can cause energy loss.
 Valves and fittings: These can also inhibit flow and cause more
friction.
 Material: The material of the pipe can affect friction loss. For example,
pipes made of concrete, cast iron, or steel require more energy to
overcome friction.

15. What are the factors to the determined when viscous fluid flows
through the circular pipe?
When a viscous fluid flows through a circular pipe, several factors are
determined, including:
 Flow rate: The flow rate is directly proportional to the viscosity of the
fluid, according to Hagen-Poiseuille's law.
  Velocity profile: The velocity profile is influenced by the fluid's
viscosity, pipe diameter, pipe roughness, flow rate, and pressure
gradient.
 Critical velocity: The critical velocity at which laminar flow changes
into turbulent flow is dependent on the diameter of the tube, viscosity,
density, and average velocity of the liquid.
 Pressure drop: The diameter, length, and smoothness of pipes determine
the pressure drop across the system.
 Resistance and turbulence: Sharp turns or fittings can introduce
resistance and turbulence, which can slow down the flow and increase
energy consumption.
16. How pumps are classified?

17. What is the need for priming in pump?

Priming a pump is important because it ensures that the pump is filled with
the fluid it will pump, which is necessary for proper lubrication and
cooling. Without priming, a pump can experience a number of problems,
including:
 Airlock: When a pump is not primed, air can become trapped inside the
pump casing. This prevents the pump from creating the low-pressure
zone needed to force liquid through the piping.
  Dry running: If a pump runs dry, it can overheat and damage the
impeller, seal, and bearings.
 Cavitation: When the pressure inside the pump drops too low, bubbles
can form in the fluid. This can damage the impeller and reduce the
pump's efficiency.
 Mechanical seal failure: If a pump runs dry, it can lead to mechanical
seal failure.
18. Differentiate between volute casing and vortex casing.
VOLUTE CASING VORTEX CASING
1. In volute type casing, the liquid 1. A vortex chamber is an
is discharged by the impeller improved version of the volute
into the volute – a chamber of design. In this case, a circular
gradually increasing cross chamber is provided between
sectional area towards the the impeller and the volute
outlet. chamber.
2. In this design, a considerable 2. This design reduces eddies to a
loss of energy takes place due considerable extent with increase
to formation of eddies. in efficiency.

19. What is the function of volute casing?

 The volute casing of a pump has two main functions:
 Directing fluid flow: The volute casing guides the fluid from the
impeller to the discharge nozzle.
 Converting kinetic energy to pressure: The volute casing converts the
kinetic energy of the fluid into pressure energy.
 The volute casing's design is important for efficient fluid transfer,
especially in industrial applications that require precise flow control.
20. What is the function of guide vanes?
 Guide vanes are fixed grooves in turbines that direct the flow of water,
gas, or air around bends to increase efficiency.
 They ensure that the substance is passed evenly and smoothly.
21. Why the vanes are curved radially backward?
Vanes are curved radially backward to improve efficiency and stability:
 Efficiency: Backward curved vanes are more efficient than forward
curved vanes.
  Stability: Backward curved vanes are more stable over a wide range of
flow.
 Noise level: Backward curved blades have the lowest noise level of any
fan for the same pressure and volumetric requirements

22. What is the function of impeller?

 The impeller's main function is to convert the motor's mechanical energy
into kinetic energy, which increases the fluid's flow rate and pressure.
23. Define specific speed of pump.
 Specific speed of a pump is a dimensionless coefficient that describes the
performance of a pump's discharge.
 It's calculated using an equation that involves the shaft speed, flow rate,
and differential head at the pump's Best Efficiency Point (BEP).
 The specific speed of a pump is represented by the letter N.
24. Name the important characteristic curves for centrifugal pump?

 Characteristic curves for discharge with varying speed are plots of head
versus discharge, power versus discharge and efficiency versus discharge,
while characteristic curves for speed are plots of discharge versus speed,
power versus speed and head versus speed.
 Fig. a shows the performance of a centrifugal pump under varying
speeds. It shows that for a given speed, the head decreases with
discharge.
  Fig. b shows the performance of a centrifugal pump under different
speeds. It shows that for a given speed, the power increases with the
discharge.
 Fig. c shoes the performance of a centrifugal pump under different
speeds. It shows that for a given speed, the efficiency increases with the
discharge and after a certain discharge, the efficiency decreases.
 Fig. d shows the performance of a centrifugal pump under constant head.
It shows that the discharge increases with the speed.
 Fig. e shows the performance of a centrifugal pump under constant
discharge. It shows that the head increases with the speed.
 Fig. f shows the performance of a centrifugal pump under constant head
and discharge. It shows that the power increases with the speed.
25. What is slip of reciprocating pump?
 The slip of a reciprocating pump is the difference between the theoretical
discharge and the actual discharge.
 It can also be defined as the loss of capacity, expressed as a percentage or
fraction of displacement, due to leaks and other factors.
 PART B

1. Explain about the types of the fluids.

Ideal Fluid:

An ideal fluid is a theoretical concept in fluid mechanics. It is defined as a

fluid that:

 Has no viscosity (i.e., it experiences no internal friction between layers),

 Is incompressible (its density does not change with pressure),

 Does not exhibit turbulence (flows smoothly).

Ideal fluids do not exist in reality, but they are useful in simplifying the study
of fluid flow and solving problems in fluid dynamics.

Real Fluid:

Real fluids are those that do exist in the physical world. These fluids:

 Have viscosity, meaning they experience internal friction when flowing,

 Are compressible to some extent (especially gases),

 Can exhibit turbulence under certain conditions.

Most of the fluids we encounter in everyday life, like water, air, oil, etc., are
real fluids.

Incompressible Fluid:

An incompressible fluid is one whose density remains constant regardless

of the pressure applied to it.

 Liquids, such as water, are often considered incompressible because their

density does not change significantly with pressure variations.

Incompressible fluids are an idealization often used in fluid dynamics to

simplify calculations.
Compressible Fluid:

Compressible fluids are those in which the density changes significantly

with variations in pressure.

 Gases, like air, are generally considered compressible fluids because their
density can change considerably under different pressure and temperature
conditions.

Compressibility is an important factor in fluid dynamics, especially when

dealing with high-speed flows and thermodynamics.

Viscous Fluid:

A viscous fluid is one that exhibits resistance to flow due to internal friction
(viscosity). The greater the viscosity, the thicker and slower the fluid flows.

 Examples include honey, oil, and molasses. These fluids have high
viscosity and flow more slowly compared to water or air.

Viscosity is a key factor in determining the behaviour of fluids in motion and

is often taken into account in engineering applications.

Non-Viscous Fluid (Ideal Fluid):

A non-viscous fluid, often called an ideal fluid, has zero viscosity. This
means there is no internal friction between layers of the fluid, and the fluid
flows without resistance.

 In practice, no real fluid is perfectly non-viscous, but the concept is useful

in theoretical studies.

Newtonian Fluid:

A Newtonian fluid is one in which the shear stress is directly proportional

to the shear rate (velocity gradient).

 The relationship between stress and strain is linear. Examples of

Newtonian fluids include water, air, and most gases.
Non-Newtonian Fluid:

Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow the simple linear relationship between

shear stress and shear rate. Their viscosity changes with the rate of flow or
with the applied stress.

 Examples include ketchup, toothpaste, paint, and blood.

 Non-Newtonian fluids can be further classified into different categories

based on their behavior, such as shear-thickening, shear-thinning,
Bingham plastics, etc.

Steady and Unsteady Fluids:

 Steady Fluid: The fluid's velocity at a given point does not change with
time. In other words, if you observe the fluid at any specific location, the
velocity will remain constant.

 Unsteady Fluid: The fluid’s velocity at a given point changes with time.
The velocity and other fluid properties can vary over time.

Laminar and Turbulent Fluids:

 Laminar Flow: In laminar flow, fluid flows in smooth layers or

streamlines, and there is little to no mixing between the layers. This type
of flow occurs at lower velocities and is typically seen in highly viscous
fluids or slow-moving flows.

 Turbulent Flow: In turbulent flow, the fluid flow is chaotic and irregular,
with eddies and swirls. This type of flow occurs at higher velocities and is
common in most real-world fluid flows.

Rotational and Irrotational Fluids:

 Rotational Fluid: In rotational flow, every element of the fluid has

angular velocity, and there is a measurable vorticity (a measure of
rotation in the fluid).

 Irrotational Fluid: In irrotational flow, there is no angular velocity for

the fluid elements, and vorticity is zero.
Ideal Gas and Real Gas:

 Ideal Gas: An ideal gas is a theoretical gas whose behaviour is described

by the ideal gas law PV=nRT. It assumes no intermolecular forces and
perfect elasticity.

 Real Gas: A real gas does not strictly follow the ideal gas law, especially
under high pressure or low temperature, where intermolecular forces
become significant.

2. Derive Bernoulli’s equation.

Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of the conservation of energy for flowing

fluids. It relates the pressure, velocity, and elevation at different points in a fluid
flow.

Assumptions for Bernoulli's Equation:

 The flow is steady (fluid properties at any point do not change with time).

 The fluid is incompressible (its density is constant).

 The fluid has negligible viscosity (non-viscous).

 The flow is along a streamline (no turbulence).

 The flow is irrotational (no vorticity).

 The effect of external forces (such as gravity and pressure) is considered.

 3. What are the applications of Bernoulli’s equation and give its uses.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation:

 Fluid flow in pipes: Used to analyze the relationship between pressure,

velocity, and elevation in pipe flow.

 Venturi Effect: In a constriction, the velocity increases and the pressure

decreases.

 Airplane wings: The shape of the wings causes differences in air velocity
and pressure, generating lift.

4. Write about the devices which work under the practical application
of Bernoulli’s equation.

Devices Based on Bernoulli's Equation

Several devices and systems in fluid mechanics and engineering take advantage
of Bernoulli’s principle to function effectively. Bernoulli’s equation highlights
the relationship between pressure, velocity, and height along a streamline. In
practical applications, Bernoulli’s equation helps to understand and manipulate
fluid behaviour for a wide range of technologies. Below are some devices that
work on the principles derived from Bernoulli’s equation:

1. Venturi Meter

The Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow rate (discharge) of a
fluid through a pipe. It works based on the principle of continuity and
Bernoulli's equation.

How it Works:

 The Venturi meter consists of a pipe with a constriction (a throat) in the

middle.

 According to Bernoulli’s equation, when the fluid enters the constriction,

its velocity increases, causing a decrease in pressure.

 By measuring the pressure difference between the wider part of the pipe
(before the constriction) and the narrow throat, the flow rate can be
determined.

Application:

 Commonly used in industrial processes, water supply systems, and fluid

flow measurement.

2. Pitot Tube

A Pitot tube is an instrument used to measure the velocity of a fluid (typically

air or water) at a particular point in the flow.

How it Works:

 The Pitot tube consists of two openings: one facing the fluid flow (the
stagnation point) and one perpendicular to the flow.

 The fluid entering the stagnation point is brought to rest, and the pressure
here is called the stagnation pressure.

 By measuring the difference between the stagnation pressure and the

static pressure (measured at the side of the flow), the fluid velocity can be
determined using Bernoulli’s equation.
Application:

 Commonly used in aerodynamics, particularly in aircraft to measure

airspeed, and in fluid flow studies.

3. Carburetor

A carburetor is a device used in internal combustion engines to mix air with

fuel in the correct ratio for combustion.

How it Works:

 Air flows through a narrow section in the carburetor (called the venturi).

 According to Bernoulli’s principle, as air velocity increases in the venturi,

the pressure decreases.

 This pressure drop creates a suction effect, drawing fuel from the fuel
chamber into the air stream, mixing it with air before it enters the engine.

Application:

 Used in older engines and small engines (e.g., motorcycles,

lawnmowers), although modern engines use fuel injection systems
instead.

4. Airfoil (Wing of an Airplane)

The Airfoil is the shape of an airplane wing, designed to generate lift.

How it Works:

 Bernoulli’s equation explains how differences in airspeed over and under

the wing generate lift.

 The upper surface of the wing is curved, so air moves faster over the top
than underneath the wing. According to Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure
on the top surface decreases as velocity increases, creating a pressure
difference between the top and bottom surfaces.

 This pressure difference results in an upward force (lift), allowing the

plane to fly.
Application:

 Found in all airplanes, helicopters, and other flying vehicles, where

efficient lift generation is crucial.

5. Flow Nozzle

A flow nozzle is similar to a Venturi meter, but it is simpler and typically used
for measuring flow rates of fluids in industrial applications.

How it Works:

 The nozzle has a smaller throat section where the fluid velocity increases,
leading to a pressure drop according to Bernoulli’s principle.

 By measuring the pressure difference between the inlet and throat, the
flow rate can be calculated.

Application:

 Commonly used in the petroleum industry, chemical plants, and water

treatment facilities to monitor fluid flow.

6. Atomizer

An atomizer is a device used to break a liquid into fine droplets, such as in

spray paints, perfumes, and fuel injectors in engines.

How it Works:

 Atomizers often use Bernoulli’s principle to convert high-pressure liquid

into a spray.

 A high-velocity air stream causes a low-pressure area, drawing the liquid

into the air stream, which is then atomized into small droplets due to the
pressure drop and turbulence.

Application:

 Used in spray painting, perfumery, engine fuel injectors, and agricultural

pesticide spraying.
7. Chimney or Stack

A chimney or stack is a vertical pipe that allows the escape of combustion

gases from industrial processes, homes, or power plants.

How it Works:

 The hot gases inside the chimney rise due to the buoyancy force (caused
by their lower density compared to the surrounding cooler air).

 As the gases rise, their velocity increases, which leads to a pressure drop
according to Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure difference between the
inside and outside helps to draw more gases out of the system.

Application:

 Found in industrial plants, residential homes (for fireplaces or stoves),

and power stations.

8. Ducted Fan (Turbofan Engines)

In turbofan engines, which are used in aircraft, Bernoulli’s principle plays a

role in the behaviour of the air flowing through the fan.

How it Works:

 The fan accelerates air, which creates a pressure difference between the
front and back of the fan.

 The air velocity increases across the fan blades, decreasing pressure
according to Bernoulli’s equation. This pressure difference creates thrust.

Application:

 Used in commercial and military aviation for propulsion, where fuel-

efficient, high-thrust engines are required.

9. Siphon

A siphon is a device used to transfer liquid from one container to another, often
used for draining tanks or transferring liquids in laboratories.
How it Works:

 A siphon uses the difference in height and atmospheric pressure to move

the liquid.

 According to Bernoulli’s equation, the fluid’s velocity increases as it

moves down the tube, and the pressure decreases at the higher point,
allowing the liquid to flow.

Application:

 Used in aquariums, laboratories, fuel transfer, and drainage systems.

5. What is the physical significance of Reynold's number?

Physical Significance of Reynolds Number (Re)

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics

to predict the flow behaviour of a fluid in a given situation. It is a ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces and is a critical factor in determining whether
the flow will be laminar, turbulent, or transitional.

Mathematical Expression:

Reynolds number is a measure of the relative importance of inertial forces

(which cause the fluid to keep moving) to viscous forces (which resist the fluid's
motion). It helps characterize the type of flow in a fluid system. Here's how it
impacts flow:

1. Laminar Flow (Re < 2100):

 Definition: In laminar flow, fluid particles move smoothly along parallel

streamlines, with little to no mixing between adjacent layers of fluid.
  Significance: At low Reynolds numbers (typically Re<2000), the fluid
experiences a dominant viscous effect. The flow is smooth and orderly,
and the velocity at different points in the fluid varies smoothly.

 Applications: Laminar flow is desirable in situations where precise

control over fluid flow is necessary, such as in microfluidics, lubrication
systems, and certain chemical reactors.

Example:

 Water flowing slowly through a very narrow pipe can exhibit laminar
flow.

2. Turbulent Flow (Re > 4000):

 Definition: In turbulent flow, fluid particles move in a chaotic and

irregular manner, leading to eddies, swirls, and vortices.

 Significance: When the Reynolds number exceeds a certain threshold

(typically Re>4000), inertial forces dominate over viscous forces. This
leads to chaotic, irregular flow, and the fluid mixes more thoroughly.

 Applications: Turbulent flow is often desired in applications like mixing,

combustion, and heat exchangers, where good fluid mixing is essential
for efficient performance.

Example:

 Water flowing at high velocity through a wide pipe typically exhibits

turbulent flow.

3. Transitional Flow (Re between 2100 and 4000):

 Definition: Transitional flow occurs in the range where the flow

oscillates between laminar and turbulent behaviour.

 Significance: The flow can fluctuate between smooth and chaotic states,
making it difficult to predict precisely. The flow may start as laminar and
then transition into turbulence depending on changes in velocity, pipe
roughness, or fluid properties.
  Applications: Transitional flows are often seen in engineering systems
where flow conditions fluctuate, such as in some sections of pipelines or
ducts.

Example:

 Flow in a pipe that is being accelerated might transition from laminar to

turbulent.

4. Dependence on Flow Geometry:

 The value of the Reynolds number is highly dependent on the geometry

of the flow domain. For instance, flow through a pipe, duct, or around
objects like an airplane wing can have different Reynolds numbers, even
for the same fluid.

Practical Implications of Reynolds Number:

 Flow Prediction: Reynolds number helps predict whether the flow will
be laminar or turbulent. This is crucial in designing pipes, ducts, and fluid
transport systems to optimize efficiency and minimize energy losses.

 Pressure Drop: Laminar flow typically has lower frictional losses, while
turbulent flow results in higher energy dissipation and pressure drop.

 Heat and Mass Transfer: Turbulent flow tends to enhance heat and mass
transfer due to greater mixing and eddy currents, making it desirable for
heat exchangers and industrial mixing processes.

 Pipe and Duct Design: Engineers use Reynolds number to design pipes
and ducts for specific flow regimes to optimize performance and ensure
safety.

Summary of Flow Regimes Based on Reynolds Number:

Reynolds Number
Flow Type Flow Characteristics
(Re)

Re < 2000 Laminar Flow Smooth, orderly, low mixing.

Transitional Oscillates between laminar and turbulent

2000 < Re < 4000
Flow flow.
Reynolds Number
Flow Type Flow Characteristics
(Re)

Chaotic, irregular flow with high mixing

Re > 4000 Turbulent Flow
and eddies.

6. What is boundary layer and give its significance with the diagram?

Boundary Layer: Definition and Significance

In fluid mechanics, the boundary layer is the thin region of fluid adjacent to
the surface of a solid body (such as a pipe wall, an airplane wing, or a ship hull)
where the fluid velocity changes from zero (due to the no-slip condition at the
surface) to the free-stream velocity (the velocity of the fluid away from the
surface).

Key Characteristics:

 Viscous effects dominate in the boundary layer because it is where the

fluid's velocity is influenced by the frictional resistance of the surface.

 The velocity gradient in the boundary layer is high, and it decreases as

you move away from the surface.

 The boundary layer can transition from laminar to turbulent as you

move along the surface, depending on factors like the surface roughness,
fluid velocity, and viscosity.

Boundary Layer Formation:

When a fluid flows over a solid surface, the fluid near the surface adheres to it
due to the no-slip condition (the velocity of the fluid at the surface is zero). The
fluid farther away from the surface is not influenced by the surface friction and
thus flows with a uniform velocity. The region where the velocity changes from
zero at the surface to the free-stream velocity is called the boundary layer.

There are two main types of boundary layers:

1. Laminar Boundary Layer: Where the fluid flow is smooth and orderly,
typically at lower velocities.
 2. Turbulent Boundary Layer: Where the fluid flow is chaotic, with eddies
and vortices, typically at higher velocities.

Diagram of a Boundary Layer:

Here's a typical illustration of the velocity profile in the boundary:

In the diagram:

 The y-axis represents the distance from the surface of the object.

 The x-axis represents the velocity of the fluid at that particular distance.

 The velocity near the surface is zero due to the no-slip condition, then
increases gradually as you move away from the surface until it reaches
the free-stream velocity (denoted as V∞).

 The shape of the velocity profile depends on the flow type (laminar or
turbulent) and the distance from the leading edge of the surface.

Significance of the Boundary Layer:

1. Frictional Resistance (Drag):

o The boundary layer plays a key role in the skin friction or drag
force experienced by an object moving through a fluid. As the fluid
moves over the surface, the friction between the fluid and the
surface slows down the fluid near the surface, increasing the drag.

o A turbulent boundary layer typically produces more drag than a

laminar boundary layer, but it also tends to have a smaller
separation point, which can reduce the size of the wake behind an
object.

2. Flow Separation:
 o Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer detaches from
the surface. This can happen when the boundary layer loses enough
momentum (due to adverse pressure gradients), causing the flow to
reverse and create eddies or vortices.

o The point at which flow separation occurs is important for

understanding the performance of aerodynamic surfaces, such as
wings and blades, and can lead to stall in airplanes.

3. Heat Transfer:

o In heat exchangers and other applications involving heat transfer,

the behaviour of the boundary layer influences the rate of
convective heat transfer. A thinner boundary layer typically
results in better heat transfer, as the temperature gradient between
the surface and the fluid remains high.

o In turbulent boundary layers, the mixing caused by the turbulence

enhances heat transfer compared to laminar layers.

4. Flow Control:

o Understanding the boundary layer is crucial for controlling flow

over surfaces. For example, in aircraft wings, engineers try to keep
the boundary layer laminar for as long as possible to reduce drag,
but they also need to prevent premature separation.

o Boundary layer control techniques (such as vortex generators,

suction, and blowing) are employed to manipulate the flow
characteristics for optimized performance.

Types of Boundary Layers:

1. Laminar Boundary Layer:

o Occurs at lower velocities (Re < 2100).

o The flow is smooth, and the velocity gradient is gradual.

o The boundary layer grows slower with increasing distance from the
leading edge of the surface.

2. Turbulent Boundary Layer:

 o Occurs at higher velocities (Re > 4000).

o The flow is chaotic with eddies and vortices, causing greater

mixing of fluid and a higher velocity gradient near the surface.

o The turbulent boundary layer grows more rapidly and has a higher
resistance to flow.

7. Give Darcy’s formula for loss of head due to friction and explain it.

Darcy’s Formula for Loss of Head Due to Friction

Explanation of Darcy's Formula:

Darcy's formula calculates the frictional loss of head (hf) as the fluid moves
through a pipe. The head loss is essentially a measure of the energy loss in the
form of friction, which resists the flow of the fluid and causes a reduction in the
fluid’s pressure or energy.

Components of the Formula:

1. Darcy-Weisbach Friction Factor (f):

o The friction factor (f) accounts for the roughness of the pipe and
the flow regime (whether the flow is laminar or turbulent).
 o For laminar flow (Re<2100), f is inversely proportional to the
Reynolds number (Re), and can be calculated using the equation
f=64Re

o For turbulent flow (Re>4000), f depends on both the Reynolds

number and the relative roughness of the pipe. In this case, f is
typically determined using empirical correlations or Moody charts.

o For transitional flow (2100<Re<4000), the friction factor is less

straightforward, and the flow can fluctuate between laminar and
turbulent states.

2. Pipe Length (L):

o The longer the pipe, the greater the frictional loss. Therefore, hf is
directly proportional to the length of the pipe. A longer pipe
increases the resistance to flow, resulting in a higher head loss.

3. Pipe Diameter (D):

o The diameter of the pipe is inversely proportional to the frictional

loss. Larger diameter pipes have less resistance to flow because
there is more cross-sectional area for the fluid to move, resulting in
a smaller head loss.

o A smaller diameter increases the frictional resistance, leading to a

higher head loss.

4. Fluid Velocity (v):

o The velocity of the fluid is directly proportional to the head loss. A

higher velocity means the fluid is moving faster, which results in
more frictional resistance and higher energy dissipation.

o The term v2 represents the velocity head, which is the kinetic

energy per unit weight of the fluid. This term indicates the energy
associated with the motion of the fluid.

5. Gravitational Constant (g):

o The gravitational constant g is used to convert the velocity head

into a head loss in meters. It is typically 9.81 m/s².
Physical Interpretation:

The head loss due to friction arises because the molecules of the fluid
experience friction as they move past the surface of the pipe. This friction
causes the fluid to lose energy in the form of heat and results in a reduction in
pressure.

As fluid moves through the pipe:

 Near the surface, the velocity is low due to the viscous effects (the no-
slip condition at the pipe wall).

 Farther away from the surface, the velocity increases, and the flow
becomes more uniform. However, there is still friction in the entire pipe
that resists the motion of the fluid, and this resistance leads to a loss of
energy.

Significance of Darcy's Formula:

1. Design of Fluid Transport Systems:

o Darcy's formula is critical in designing pipelines, ducts, and

channels for transporting fluids. It helps in determining the
frictional losses and pressure drops, which are necessary for
selecting appropriate pumps or compressors to maintain desired
flow rates.

2. Optimizing Efficiency:

o By calculating the head loss due to friction, engineers can choose

the appropriate diameter of pipes, the desired flow velocity, and
select materials that minimize frictional losses, ultimately
improving the efficiency of the system.

3. Estimating Pressure Drop:

o The head loss calculated using Darcy's formula helps estimate the
pressure drop over a length of the pipe. This is important in
systems where maintaining a certain pressure is crucial, such as in
water supply systems or oil pipelines.

4. Assessing Flow Resistance:

 o Darcy’s formula helps in assessing how much the fluid flow will be
resisted by the surface friction, which is particularly important
when dealing with non-Newtonian fluids, highly viscous fluids, or
turbulent flows.

8. With Reynold’s experiment, explain laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Reynolds Experiment: Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Reynolds' experiment, conducted by Osborne Reynolds in 1883, was a

pioneering study that demonstrated how the flow of fluid can change from
laminar to turbulent based on factors like fluid velocity, pipe diameter, and
fluid viscosity. The experiment provided the foundation for understanding
the concept of Reynolds number (Re), a dimensionless quantity that
predicts the flow regime in a pipe or duct.

In Reynolds' experiment, he used a simple setup with a clear glass tube

through which water flowed. He injected a coloured dye or fluid at the
entrance of the tube and observed how the dye behaved as it travelled
through the pipe. Depending on the flow conditions (velocity, viscosity, and
pipe diameter), he noticed different patterns in the dye's movement, which
helped distinguish laminar flow from turbulent flow.

Laminar Flow:

Laminar flow occurs when a fluid flows smoothly and in parallel layers,
with each layer of fluid moving at a constant velocity. In this type of flow,
there is little mixing between adjacent layers of fluid, and the flow is orderly.

Characteristics of Laminar Flow:

 Smooth and orderly: The fluid flows in parallel layers without any
eddies or swirls.

 Layered flow: The fluid layers slide past each other, with slower layers
near the pipe wall and faster layers near the center of the pipe.
 Low Reynolds number (Re<2100): Laminar flow typically occurs when
the Reynolds number is low, meaning the viscous forces dominate over
inertial forces.

 Dye behaviour: In laminar flow, the injected dye remains in a smooth,

steady line without mixing or causing disturbances in the flow.

Key Features:

 The velocity profile in laminar flow is parabolic, with the maximum

velocity at the centre of the pipe and a gradual decrease to zero at the pipe
wall (due to the no-slip condition).

 Viscous effects dominate, and there is minimal mixing within the fluid
layers.

 Laminar flow typically occurs in narrow pipes, at low flow velocities, or

when the fluid has high viscosity.

Reynolds' Experiment for Laminar Flow:

In Reynolds' experiment, when the fluid velocity was low (at a low Reynolds
number), the dye injected into the flow moved in smooth, parallel layers
without causing turbulence. The flow appeared calm, without swirls or
eddies.

Turbulent Flow:

Turbulent flow occurs when the fluid moves chaotically with irregular
fluctuations and eddies, leading to vigorous mixing and random motion of
fluid particles. In this type of flow, the fluid velocity is not uniform and there
are high-speed regions interspersed with low-speed regions, creating
turbulence.

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow:

 Chaotic and irregular: The fluid moves in a highly irregular, swirling

motion with eddies, vortices, and random fluctuations.
  High Reynolds number (Re>4000\text {Re} > 4000Re>4000):
Turbulent flow typically occurs when the Reynolds number is high,
meaning inertial forces dominate over viscous forces.

 Dye behaviour: In turbulent flow, the injected dye spreads quickly,

mixes, and forms irregular patterns throughout the fluid. The flow is
highly disordered.

 Energy dissipation: Turbulent flow leads to higher energy losses due to

friction and chaotic motion, which results in more significant mixing and
heat transfer.

Key Features:

 The velocity profile in turbulent flow is flatter compared to laminar flow.

While the velocity is still highest at the centre of the pipe, the fluid near
the wall moves at a faster rate than in laminar flow.

 Inertial effects dominate, and there is significant mixing of the fluid,

with swirls, eddies, and vortices disrupting the flow.

 Turbulent flow is common in large pipes, at high flow velocities, or with

low-viscosity fluids.

Reynolds' Experiment for Turbulent Flow:

In Reynolds' experiment, when the fluid velocity was increased (at a high
Reynolds number), the dye injected into the flow quickly dispersed and
became turbulent. The dye formed irregular patterns, and the flow appeared
chaotic, with vortices and swirling motions.

Transitional Flow:

Between laminar flow and turbulent flow, there exists a range of

transitional flow. This occurs in the Reynolds number range between
approximately 2000 and 4000, where the flow can fluctuate between laminar
and turbulent states. Transitional flow is unstable, and small disturbances can
trigger a shift from one state to the other.

Characteristics of Transitional Flow:

 The flow can shift unpredictably between smooth (laminar) and chaotic
(turbulent) behaviour.
  It is commonly observed in pipes when conditions are not strictly laminar
or turbulent, but somewhere in between.

10. Differentiate between centrifugal pump and reciprocating

pump.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP RECIPROCATING PUMP

1. The means of fluid transfer is a 1. The means of fluid transfer is a

centrifugal force. displacement by a piston element.

2. Simple in construction and light in 2. Complex in construction and heavy

weight due to less number of parts. construction due to more number of
parts.

3. It requires less floor space and 3. It requires more floor space and
simple foundation. comparatively heavy foundation.

4. It needs priming. 4. It does not need priming.

5. It does not incorporate an air 5. It incorporates an air vessel.

vessel.

6. Discharge is steady and even. 6. Discharge is not even, it is

pulsating.

7. Used for large capacity and low 7. Used for low capacity and high
heads. heads.

8. It is operated at high speeds. 8. It is operated at low speeds.

9. It can handle relatively viscous 9. It cannot handle viscous liquids

liquids and liquids containing and liquids containing suspended
suspended solids. solids. It can handle clear liquids.

10.They are coupled directly to an 10. They are belt driven.

electric motor.

11.They are operated against a closed 11. They are never operated against a
valve without danger. closed valve.

12.Efficiencies are low. 12. Efficiencies are high.

13. Maintenance cost is low. 13. Maintainace cost is high.

14. Costwise they are cheaper. 14. Cost of the reciprocating pump is
higher than the centrifugal pump of
the same power.

15. Designed for high discharge. 15. Designed for high heads.

16. Cannot develop high pressure. 16. Can develop high pressure.

17. less wear and tear. 17. more wear and tear.

11. Can actual discharge be greater than theoretical discharge in a

reciprocating pump? Explain

 Yes, the actual discharge of a reciprocating pump can be greater than the
theoretical discharge, which is known as negative slip:

Slip type Explanation

Positive slip The theoretical discharge is greater than the actual discharge

Negative slip The actual discharge is greater than the theoretical discharge

 Negative slip can occur when the pump is running at high speed, the
suction pipe is long, and the delivery pipe is short.
 The difference between the theoretical and actual discharge is called the
slip of the pump. In a well-functioning pump, the slip should be less than
1%. If the slip is greater than 5%, the pump may need to be overhauled.

12. What is suction head, delivery head and manometric head of centrifugal
pump?
In a centrifugal pump, the suction head, delivery head, and manometric head are
the following:
 Suction head
The vertical distance between the pump's centreline and the water surface in the
tank from which water is being lifted. It's also called the suction lift.
 Delivery head
The vertical distance between the pump's centreline and the water surface in the
tank to which water is being delivered.
 Manometric head
The head against which the pump has to work. It's the total head developed by
the pump and is a measure of the energy imparted to the fluid.
13. What is reciprocating pump?
A reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump that captures a
moving fluid in a cavity and then discharges a fixed amount of it via mechanical
pressure. It is a constant volume pump that operates in low flow and high
discharge pressure environments.

14. List the components and briefly explain their functions of a

reciprocating pump.
 A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which
moves to and fro i.e., reciprocates back and forth in a close-fitting
stationary cylinder.
 The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes. Each of these are
provided with a non-return valve called suction valve and delivery valve
respectively.
 A non-return valve permits unidirectional flow. Thus, the suction valve
allows the liquids only to enter the cylinder and the delivery valve allows
only its discharge from the cylinder.
 A piston or plunger is connected to a crank by means of a connecting rod.
The crank is rotated by a driving engine or electric motor. When the crank
is rotated by the drive, the piston or plunger moves to and fro in the
cylinder.
 Reciprocating pumps are provided with an air vessel at the discharge to
obtain a uniform delivery/ discharge from them.
15. What is centrifugal pump?
 A pump which lifts a liquid from a lower level to a higher level by the
action of a centrifugal force is called as a centrifugal pump.
 Centrifugal pump is widely used in the chemical and petroleum industries
because of its many advantages such as simplicity of design, low initial
cost, low maintenance and flexibility of operation.
16. Classify pumps on the basis of transfer of mechanical energy.
Pumps can be classified based on how they transfer mechanical energy into
fluid in three main ways:
 Positive displacement: A mechanism traps and releases a fixed volume
of fluid. Examples include reciprocating, plunger, gear, vane, lobe, and
screw pumps.
 Axial flow: The direction of fluid flow remains unchanged.
 Centrifugal: The direction of fluid flow changes by 90 degrees as it
passes over an impeller. The fluid receives energy from the centrifugal
action of the impeller's moving blades.
Pumps are mechanical devices that move fluids from one place to another. They
convert mechanical energy into pressure and kinetic energy in the fluid. Pumps
are used in many applications, including:
  Pumping water from wells
 Filtering aquariums and ponds
 Cooling water and injecting fuel in automobiles
 Pumping oil or gas
 Operating cooling towers in the energy industry
 Wastewater recycling
 Pulp and paper
 Chemical industry.

18. Derive an expression for specific speed for pump.

The expression for the specific speed of a pump is Ns=NQ .

, where:

 Ns: Specific speed

 Q: Discharge

 H: Head under which the pump is working

 : Speed at which the pump is working

The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is the speed of a geometrically similar

pump that would deliver one cubic meter of liquid per second against a head of
one meter.

19. Define a centrifugal pump. Explain the working of a single stage

centrifugal pump with sketches.

 A pump which lifts a liquid from a lower level to a higher level by the
action of a centrifugal force is called as a centrifugal pump.
 A single-stage centrifugal pump uses centrifugal force to move fluids by
converting rotational energy into kinetic energy:

centrifugal pump works:

1. Fluid enters: Fluid is supplied to the pump through a nozzle and directed at
the impeller.

2. Impeller rotates: The impeller is connected to a motor by a shaft and spins at

high speeds, typically 500–5000 rpm.

3. Fluid is accelerated: The impeller's rotation creates a centrifugal force that

moves the fluid from the centre to the outer edge. This increases the fluid's
velocity and pressure.

4. Fluid is guided: The pump's casing guides the fluid through a volute or
diffuser, which increases its speed and pressure.

5. Fluid is discharged: The fluid exits the pump through the discharge port,
which is usually at the top of the casing.

 The main components of a centrifugal pump are the impeller, casing, and
shaft. The impeller is the key component and consists of a series of
curved vanes. The casing is stationary and surrounds the impeller, guiding
the fluid to the discharge point.
 To prime a single-stage centrifugal pump, you can fill the casing with
liquid through the priming port or by opening valves to allow product to
flow into the pump head.
20.What is the difference between single stage and multistage centrifugal
pump? Describe multistage pump with (a) impellers in parallel (b)
impellers in series.

 The primary difference between single-stage and multistage centrifugal

pumps lies in the number of stages (also referred to as impellers) they
have. As the name implies, single-stage pumps have only one impeller,
whereas multistage pumps have at least two.
 A centrifugal pumps impeller is what pressurizes and transfers the liquid.
Because multistage pumps have multiple impellers, their pressure
ranges and flow rates are far superior.
 Within a multistage centrifugal pump, each impeller acts like a single-
stage pump within a chain of pumps. The advantages of multistage
centrifugal pumps stem from this chain-like design.
 As the liquid is propelled from one impeller to the next, its pressure
increases while the flow rate remains constant.
 A multistage pump with impellers in series is used to increase the head of
a pump, while a multistage pump with impellers in parallel is used to
increase the flow of a pump:
 Impellers in series: A multistage pump with impellers in series
has multiple impellers arranged in a series, with the flow moving
from one stage's outlet to the next stage's inlet. The total head of
the pump is the sum of the individual stages. The more stages the
pump has, the higher the final discharge pressure.

 Impellers in parallel: A multistage pump with impellers in

parallel is used to increase the flow of the pump. When pumps are
arranged in parallel, the discharge passing through each impeller is
the same.

 Multistage pumps are often used in industrial applications that require

high pressures, such as in power stations
 PART C
1. The diameters of a pipe at section 1 is 10 cm and at section 2 is 15 cm. Find
the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the
pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Also determine the velocity at section 2.
2. A 30 cm diameter pipe conveying water branches into two pipes of
diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30
cm pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the
velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm pipe is 2 m/s.
3. Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 50
m, through which water is flowing at a velocity of 3 m/s, using Darcy’s
formula for which C= 60.Take kinematic viscosity of water is 0.01 stoke.
4. Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged
to a diameter of 400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250
litres/sec.
5. An oil of viscosity 0.1N./m² and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a
circular pipe of diameter 50mm and of length 300mm.The rate of flow of
fluid through the pipe is 3.5litre/sec. find the pressure drop in a length of
300m.

6. The velocity of water in a pipe 200mm diameter is 5m/s. The length of the
pipe is 50m. Find the loss of head due to friction, if f= 0.08.
7. Crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe of
diameter 300 mm at the rate of 300 litres/sec. Find the head lost due to
friction for a length of 50 m of the pipe.
8. Water flows through a pipe AB of 1.2 m in diameter at 3 m/s and then passes
through a pipe BC of 1.5 m in diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD
is 0.8 m in diameter and carries one-third of the flow of AB. The flow
velocity in branch CE is 2,5 m/s. Find the rate of flow in AB, velocity in BC,
the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.
9. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through the pipe is 35 litres/s.
The section 1 is 6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the
pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2 , find the intensity of pressure at section
2.

10.A 45° reducing bend is connected to a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and
outlet of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force
exerted by bend on water if the intensity of pressure at the inlet to bend is
8.829 N/cm2 and rate of flow of water is 600 litres/s.
11.A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again form as one pipe.
The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and 1 m
respectively, while the length and diameter for second parallel pipe are 2000
m and 0.8 m respectively. Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe, if total
flow in main pipe is 3 m3 /s. The co-efficient of friction for each pipe is
equal and equal to 0.005.