OP-AMPS WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Negative feedback is illustrated. The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180°
out of phase with the input signal.

The closed-loop voltage gain( ACL ) is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback.
The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an external negative feedback circuit that
connects the output to the inverting input. The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the
external component values and can be precisely controlled by them.

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a non-inverting amplifier with a
controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure.

The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input. The output is applied back to the
inverting input through the feedback circuit (closed loop) formed by the input resistor Ri and the
feedback resistor Rf. This creates negative feedback as follows. Resistors Ri and Rf form a
voltage-divider circuit, which reduces Vout and connects the reduced voltage Vf to the inverting
input. The feedback voltage is expressed as

The difference of the input voltage, Vin, and the feedback voltage, Vf, is the differential input to
the op-amp, as shown in Figure.
This differential voltage is amplified by the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp (Aol) and
produces an output voltage expressed as
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier where all
of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input by a straight connection, as shown in
Figure.

As you can see, the straight feedback connection has a voltage gain of 1 (which means there is
1
no gain). The closed-loop voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier is as previously derived.
B
Since B=1 for a voltage-follower, the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage-follower is

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain
is shown in Figure. The input signal is applied through a series input resistor Ri to the inverting
input. Also, the output is fed back through Rf to the same input. The non-inverting input is
grounded.

At this point, the ideal op-amp parameters mentioned earlier are useful in simplifying the
analysis of this circuit. In particular, the concept of infinite input impedance is of great value. An
infinite input impedance implies zero current at the inverting input. If there is zero current
through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage drop between the inverting and non-
inverting inputs. This means that the voltage at the inverting input is zero because the non-
inverting input is grounded. This zero voltage at the inverting input terminal is referred to as
virtual ground. This condition is illustrated in Figure (a). Since there is no current at the
inverting input, the current through Ri and the current through Rf are equal, as shown in Figure
(b).
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages. A two-input summing amplifier is shown in
Figure, but any number of inputs can be used. The operation of the circuit and derivation of the
output expression are as follows. Two voltages, VIN1 and VIN2, are applied to the inputs and
produce currents I1 and I2, as shown. Using the concepts of infinite input impedance and virtual
ground, you can determine that the inverting input of the op-amp is approximately 0 V and has
no current through it. This means that both input currents I1 and I2 combine at a summing point,
A, and form the total current (IT), which goes through Rf,
The equation shows that the output voltage has the same magnitude as the sum of the two input
voltages but with a negative sign, indicating inversion.
A general expression is given for a unity-gain summing amplifier with n inputs, as shown in
Figure where all resistors are equal in value.
INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS
An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a summing process
that determines the total area under the curve of a function. An op-amp differentiator simulates
mathematical differentiation, which is a process of determining the instantaneous rate of change
of a function. It is not necessary for you to understand mathematical integration or
differentiation, at this point, in order to learn how an integrator and differentiator work. Ideal
integrators and differentiators are used to show basic principles. Practical integrators often have
an additional resistor in parallel with the feedback capacitor to prevent saturation. Practical
differentiators may include a resistor in series with the comparator to reduce high frequency
noise.

OP-AMP INTEGRATOR
An ideal integrator is shown in Figure. Notice that the feedback element is a capacitor that forms
an RC circuit with the input resistor.

Recall that the capacitor voltage in a simple RC circuit is not linear but is exponential. This is
because the charging current continuously decreases as the capacitor charges and causes the rate
of change of the voltage to continuously decrease. The key thing about using an op-amp with an
RC circuit to form an integrator is that the capacitor’s charging current is made constant, thus
producing a straight-line (linear) voltage rather than an exponential voltage.
In Figure below, the inverting input of the op-amp is at virtual ground (0 V), so the voltage
across Ri equals Vin. Therefore, the input current is
THE OP-AMP DIFFERENTIATOR
An ideal differentiator is shown in Figure. Notice how the placement of the capacitor and resistor
differ from the integrator. The capacitor is now the input element, and the resistor is the feedback
element. A differentiator produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage.